Pistachio Psylla Research Articles

Evaluation of three neonicotinoid insecticides against the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae, and its natural enemies.

The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is a key pest in pistachio orchards in Iran. Chemical control is a common method to manage this pest. Compatibility between natural enemies and pesticides is a primary concern in programs of integrated pest management of the psyllid pest. In this research, susceptibility of fifth instar nymphs of Ag. pistaciae and fourth instar larvae of the two most common predators of this pest, Adalia bipunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Coccinella undecimpunctata aegyptiaca Reiche, to acetamiprid, thiamethoxam, and imidacloprid was investigated. Probit analysis of concentration-mortality data was conducted to estimate the LC50 value. The results showed that thiamethoxam with an LC50 value of 56.35 mg a.i./L was more toxic to fifth instar nymphs of Ag. pistaciae in comparison to acetamiprid (60.75 mg a.i/L) and imidacloprid (138.21 mg a.i/L) . Imidacloprid with an LC50 value of 218.89 mg a.i/L compared to acetamiprid (222.65 mg a.i/L) and thiamethoxam (232.37 mg a.i/L) had more lethal effects on fourth instar larvae of Ad. bipunctata. However, on the fourth instar larvae of C. undecimpunctata aegyptica , acetamiprid with an LC50 value of 263.44 mg a.i/L was more toxic than thiamethoxam (296.62 mg a.i/L) and imidacloprid (447.82 mg a.i/L). The laboratory findings showed that the three tested insecticides were more toxic to the common pistachio psylla than to its natural predators. Thiamethoxam was the most toxic against Ag. pistaciae . However, its toxicity to the predators was lower than imidacloprid and acetamiprid. This result suggests that thiamethoxam is the best insecticide for control of Ag. pistaciae in combination with predatory lady beetles.

Possibility of tank mixing of micronutrient and amitraz by foliar application on abundance of Agonoscena pistaciae in pistachio orchards

Fertilization is one of the effective factors on the common pistachio psylla Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hem.: Aphalaridae) population. Fertilization has a central role in all metabolic processes, as well as in the cellular structure, cell wall structure, and growth of all organisms, and various pesticides are now used to control this pest, as well. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a pesticide (amitraz) mixed with micronutrients (Ca, Zn, and N) on the population density of A. pistaciae. We tested the effects of mixing pesticides and micronutrients on A. pistaciae in a pistachio orchard. The effect of nutritional solutions on nymph and egg populations showed a significant difference at a 5% concentration level. The highest measure of control of the eggs was related to combination of amitraz + N + Zn and amitraz + N + Ca, while the least effective was amitraz + Ca. The results also showed that the highest measure of nymph control was related to the combination of amitraz + N+ Zn+ Ca, while the least was related to amitraz alone and amitraz + Zn.

Effects of temperature on biological parameters ofAnthocoris minki pistaciae(Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)☆

The predatory bug – Anthocoris minki pistaciae Wagner – is associated with the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer, a major pest of cultivated pistachio trees in Iran. The biological parameters of A. minki pistaciae were determined under controlled conditions at five constant temperatures, including 17.5, 22.5, 25, 27.5 and 30 °C, 55 ± 5% relative humidity and the photoperiod of 16 light:8 dark hours. According to our data, the survival rate of eggs and nymphs was high at 17.5 and 22.5 °C, respectively; the length of the pre-oviposition period at 17.5 °C differed significantly from that at 27.5 °C. Furthermore, the study results revealed that female longevity as well as the oviposition period increased with the reduction of temperature. However, the fecundity of A. minki pistaciae did not differ significantly at all the tested temperatures ranging from 17.5 to 30 °C. The life table analysis of the predatory bug showed that both the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r m)...

Toxic effects of pyriproxyfen, neemarin, acetamiprid and Ferula assafoetida essential oil on the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae

The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae, Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) is the key pest of pistachio orchards in Iran. Chemical control is the common method for the control of this pest. In this study, the effects of pyriproxyfen (an insect growth regulator), neemarin (a botanical insecticide), acetamiprid (a neonicotinoid) and Ferula assafoetida essential oil were investigated on the fifth instar nymphs of A. pistaciae. Probit analysis of concentration-mortality data was conducted to estimate the LC50 values. The LC50 values for neemarin, pyriproxyfen, acetamiprid and F. assafoetida essential oil were estimated to be 0.22, 0.52, 290 and 5.62 ppm, respectively. Our results showed that the fifth instar nymphs of A. pistaciae are very sensitive to neemarin and pyriproxyfen.

Energy Allocation Changes in Overwintering Adults of the Common Pistachio Psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is known as the key pest of pistachio orchards in Iran. This pest passes the winter as adults. In this study, energy allocation changes in relation to ambient temperature were investigated in field-collected adults by measuring total body sugar, trehalose, glucose, sorbitol, myoinositol, glycogen, lipid, and protein contents. Glycogen content decreased with decrease in ambient temperature. The decrease in glycogen content was proportional to the increase in total body sugar, trehalose, myoinositol, and sorbitol contents. In January, with mean ambient temperature of 5.4°C, glycogen content was at the lowest level, whereas total body sugar, trehalose, glucose, and sorbitol were at the highest level. Total body sugar, trehalose, myoinositol, and sorbitol contents increased as temperature decreased from 22.7°C in October to 5.4°C in January. In conclusion, low molecular weight carbohydrates and polyols may play a role in winter survival and adaptation to cold of the common pistachio psylla by providing the required cryoprotection. Also, overwintering adults of the common pistachio psylla may store energy in the form of lipid for later utilization during the overwintering.

Evaluation of Effects of Two Spring Applications of Micronutrients on the Population Density of Common Pistachio Psylla (Agonoscena Pistaciae) in Pistachio Orchards

The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae) is one of the most detrimental pests to pistachio trees. This pest is distributed throughout all the pistachio producing regions of Iran. Nowadays vari- ous pesticides are used to control the common pistachio psylla, but extensive pesticide spraying against this pest over a period of several years has overpowered its natural enemies. Moreover, the overlapping of generations has resulted in an abundant presence of the pest. Many herbivorous insects can make qualitative distinctions between host plants, they can feed and oviposit preferentially on higher quality plants. Cultural methods such as crop fertilization can affect the susceptibility of plants to insect pests by altering a plant tissue's nutrient level. This study tested nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca) and zinc (Zn) fertilizers on A. pistaciae in pistachio orchards. The experiment was based on complete randomized blocks with three replications and nine treatments including once-applied Zn, Ca, N, NCa, ZnCa, ZnN, ZnCaN, pesticide (amitraz) and a control (distilled water), on common pistachio psylla fed on 20-year-old pistachio trees of Ahmadaghaei rootstock. The results demonstrated that the effect of nutritional solutions on nymph and egg popula- tions showed a significant difference at a 5% level. The highest measure of control on eggs was related to amitraz, ZnCa and Zn while the least was related to NZn. The results also showed that the highest measure of pest control was related to Ca while the least was related to N and Zn. The results indicated that combinations of the elements mentioned had a stronger reducing effect on the concen- tration of pistachio psylla nymphs than the effect pesticide had.

Estimations of the critical temperatures for development of the pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

The pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is a major pest of pistachio trees throughout the pistachio producing regions in Iran. The effect of temperature on the developmental rates of eggs and nymphs of A. pistaciae was determined at different constant temperatures, i.e. 15, 20, 25, 30, 32.5 and 35 ± 0.5°C. The relationships between temperature and developmental rates were described by linear and the non-linear Lactin models. These models were evaluated based on R2, RSS, AIC and R2adj. The estimated value of the lower temperature threshold for egg, nymph and egg to adult development based on the linear model was 8.06, 10.38 and 9.97°C, respectively, and based on the Lactin model was 8, 11.55 and 11.2°C, respectively. Thermal constants estimated using the linear model, were 88.5, 243.90 and 333.33 DD, respectively, for egg, nymph and egg to adult development. These results indicate that the linear model gives a better description of the relationship between developmental rate and temperature for A. pistaciae than the non-linear model. These results could be incorporated into forecasting models used in the integrated pest management of this pest.

The Phenology of Emergence From Artificial Overwintering Sites by Predatory Arthropods in Pistachio Orchards and Adjacent Habitats

Artificial overwintering shelters composed of corrugated cardboard bands were placed on pistachio, almond, and wild almond trees located in the Sanliurfa (Turkey) province to monitor the timing of emergence from overwintering sites by hibernated predator arthropods. Almond and wild almonds adjacent to the pistachio orchards are the sources of the natural enemies of orchard pests. The bands were placed on the trees in October and collection began in January. Cumulative emergence from shelters was determined in 2009 and 2010 by calendar date and degree-day basis for Oenopia conglobata, Piocoris luridus Fieb., Spiders, Hippodomia variegata, and Deraeocoris pallens Reuther. In addition, one of the most important pest species of pistachio trees, pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistacieae Burck. and Laut. were collected from these overwintering shelters. Spiders and D. pallens emerged first, D. pallens completing their emergence by early March (190 degree-days for 90% emergence) and by late March (372 degree-days for 90% emergence) in 2009 and 2010, respectively. The spiders completed their emergence by late April. Piocoris luridus and H. variegata emerged later than previous taxa, and finished emergence by late March, mid April. Oenopia conglobata emerged later than the other species (began emerging from bands at about 250 degree-days), and completed emergence by early, mid April. Anthocoris minki Dohrn, and Orius spp., Neuroptera, two species of Coccinellidae and A. pistaciae occurred at lower numbers in the shelters. Results suggested that most predatory taxa were more likely to be active at the time that the initial insecticide sprays were applied in early spring. Chemical applications with minimal detrimental impact on the environment should take into account the variety of natural enemies overwintered in orchard and their emergence time.

Biological traits and prey consumption of Anthocoris minki fed on Agonoscena pistaciae and Brachycaudus (Thuleaphis) amygdalinus

The predatory insect Anthocoris minki Dohrn (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) is an indigenous Anthocoris species for the biological control of pests in pistachio orchards. The pistachio psylla Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Homoptera: Psyllidae) is an important insect pest in pistachio trees in Turkey. Similarly, Brachycaudus (Thuleaphis) amygdalinus (Schouteden) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a pest of almond trees that is considered as alternative prey for A. minki when pistachio psylla are not available in early spring on pistachio trees. The development time, survival percentage of immature stages, longevity, fecundity, prey consumption, and life table parameters of A. minki fed on A. pistaciae and B. amygdalinus nymphs were determined at 25 ± 1°C, 70 ± 5% r.h., and a 16 h:8 h (L:D) photoperiod under laboratory conditions. The nymphal survival rate was significantly higher when nymphs were fed on A. pistaciae (an average of 96.7%) than on B. amygdalinus (an average of 71.4%). The development time of A. minki was significantly shorter when nymphs were fed on B. amygdalinus (10.3 days) as opposed to A. pistaciae (11.0 days). No significant differences among prey species were found for longevity and fecundity. The total female longevity and fecundity of A. minki was 38.0 days and 247.2 eggs, respectively, when nymphs were fed on A. pistaciae; and 35.4 days and 233.0 eggs, respectively, when nymphs were fed on B. amygdalinus. On average, 104.4 A. pistaciae and 77.7 B. amygdalinus nymphs were consumed during the nymphal development time for A. minki. Adults of A. minki consumed significantly more psyllids than aphids throughout their life span. The greater difference did not significantly inpact the longevity and fecundity of A. minki. Females of A. minki consumed an average of 631.0 A. pistaciae and an average of 273.3 B. amygdalinus nymphs, while female predators consumed significantly more prey than males. The intrinsic rate of increase (rm) of A. minki fed on A. pistaciae (0.174) was significantly greater than those fed on B. amygdalinus (0.148). The successful development and reproduction of both A. pistaciae and B. amygdalinus indicates that they are suitable prey for A. minki.

Seasonal occurrence and biological parameters of the common green lacewing predators of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae (Hemiptera: Psylloidea)

Species in the carnea complex of the common green lacewing are predators of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae in both cultivated pistachio plantations and on wild pistachio plants in Iran. The seasonal occurrence of common green lacewings was monitored in pistachio orchards from 2007 to 2008. In addition, the effect of different temperature regimes on prei- maginal development, survival and prey consumption of the predatory lacewing Chrysoperla lucasina fed on A. pistaciae nymphs were studied under controlled conditions. The adults of common green lacewings first appeared on pistachio trees in mid April and were most abundant in early July, decreased in abundance in summer and increased again in October. The relative density of common green lacewings was higher in pistachio orchards where the ground was covered with herbaceous weeds than in those without weeds. In the laboratory females of C. lucasina laid an average of 1085 eggs over 60 days at 22.5°C. The maximum prey consumption occurred at 35°C when the larvae consumed 1812 fourth instar psyllid nymphs during their larval period. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm) was 0.11. The total development (egg-adult) required 385 degree-days above the theoretical lower devel- opmental threshold of 9.6°C.

Abundance and biological parameters of psyllophagous coccinellids in pistachio orchards

The abundance of coccinellids on pistachio trees was monitored at both a cultivated pistachio plantation and a wild pistachio growing area in Rafsanjan, Iran. Eleven ladybird species were identified from planted pistachio trees with Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus) and Oenopia conglobata contaminata (Menetries) the most abundant ladybirds. At the wild pistachio plantation site, 17 coccinellid species were collected, with Brumus undulatus Weise the most abundant ladybird, followed by A. bipunctata and O. conglobata contaminata. Three species of Coccinellidae were evaluated for their potential for biological control of the common pistachio psylla (CPP), Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer. Coccinella undecimpunctata aegyptica (Reiche), Exochomus nigripennis (Erichson) and Hippodamia variegata (Goeze) developed successfully on A. pistaciae nymphs and reproduced successfully. Development and reproduction of these ladybirds were also examined on an alternative prey, the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii Glover, the most abundant aphid species on herbal weeds in pistachio orchards. The highest intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm value) was observed in C. undecimpunctata aegyptica, 0.22 and 0.23 when it was fed on A. pistaciae and A. gossypii Glover, respectively. In comparison, the lowest rm values (0.12 and 0.13) were found in E. nigripennis on the CPP and cotton aphid diets, respectively. Exochomus nigripennis consumed the largest number of psyllid nymphs during larval period, while the adults consumed the lowest number of psyllid nymphs daily. Although eight psyllophagous coccinellid species were collected in colonies of the CPP on pistachio trees, they did not regulate psyllid numbers below damaging levels. At present, conservation should assume a central role in biological control strategies for this pest.

Economic Injury Level of the Psyllid,Agonoscena pistaciae, on Pistachio,Pistacia veracv. Ohadi

The pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) is a major pest of pistachio trees, Pistacia vera L. (Sapindalis: Anacardiaceae) throughout pistachio-producing regions in Iran. Different density levels of A. pistaciae nymphs were maintained on pistachio trees by different insecticide dosages to evaluate the relationship between nymph density and yield loss (weight of 1000 nuts). Psylla nymph densities were monitored weekly by counting nymphs on pistachio terminal leaflets. There was a significant reduction in weight of 1000 nuts as seasonal averages of nymphs increased. Regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between nymph density and weight of 1000 nuts. The economic injury levels varied as a function of market values, management costs, insecticide efficiency and yield loss rate and ranged from 7.7 to 30.7 nymphal days per terminal leaflet, based on weight of 1000 nuts.

Host discrimination by the endoparasitoid Psyllaephagus pistaciae (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae): A case of time-dependent ability

Host-discrimination behavior by the koinobiont parasitoid, Psyllaephagus pistaciae Ferrière (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), the major biocontrol agent of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), in Iran, was investigated in the laboratory. The results demonstrated that P. pistaciae quickly detected and avoided freshly parasitized hosts, either after antennating or by probing with their ovipositor. However, this discriminatory ability declined with time, probably influenced by both external and internal markers left by the previous ovipositing female. The results also confirmed that female P. pistaciae responded to changes in host quality associated with the parasitoid's larval development 4 days after the initial parasitization, clearly indicating that the second female could detect the presence of the larvae and adjust her host-selection decision. In addition, psyllid nymphs treated topically with a solution of Dufour's gland were rejected by the parasitoid, showing that Dufour's gland secretion had a significant effect as a host marking chemical. The current study also showed that superparasitism increased the host-mortality and that the rate of encapsulation decreased, suggesting that, when two eggs are laid in the same psyllid nymph, only one parasitoid develops to an adult.

Behavioral responses of the parasitoid Psyllaephagus pistaciae (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) to host plant volatiles and honeydew

AbstractThe behavioral responses of the parasitoid Psyllaephagus pistaciae, the major biocontrol agent of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae, to volatiles emanating from its host plant and host honeydew, were examined using a four‐arm airflow olfactometer. In addition, the arrestment behavior of this parasitoid on clean and honeydew‐treated leaves of the pistachio, Pistacia vera, was monitored. The infested pistachio leaves were the most favored source of the volatile attracting the parasitoids. The parasitoid clearly distinguished and responded to infochemicals emitted by psyllid honeydew but at a lower level than to the volatiles from infested host plants. However, the searching time, locomotory behavior, antennal drumming and ovipositor probing were all affected when they encountered honeydew‐contaminated zones on pistachio leaves. These findings suggest that the psyllid honeydew releases kairomones that stimulate the parasitoids to greater searching activity, as well as providing a directional cue. The intensive searching activities in the presence of the volatiles tested were very similar to responses by the parasitoid females when encountering patches treated with psyllid honeydew. Such behavior could retain the parasitoid in a favorable area, thereby increasing the probability of additional host encounters.

Host-stage selection and oviposition behaviour of Psyllaephagus pistaciae, parasitoid of the common pistachio psylla Agonoscena pistaciae

Abstract Host-stage selection and oviposition behaviour of Psyllaephagus pistaciae Ferriere, a major biocontrol agent of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer, was investigated in the laboratory. All five psyllid nymphal instars were susceptible to parasitism by P. pistaciae , and were suitable for parasitoid development. In a choice test, however, the parasitoid preferentially attacked fourth instar nymphs. Feeding upon host haemolymph was found a common behaviour by P. pistaciae . All instars of the psyllid were accepted for destructive non-concurrent host feeding resulting in killing about 10% of the hosts. Female wasps allocated a relatively short time for antennal examination of all different psyllid nymphal instars, however, the duration of drilling increased with host instar. Parasitoids’ post-ovipositional behaviour showed that females leave the hosts immediately after oviposition and do not deposited an external marker over the host surface. Both adult body size of male and female progeny and sex ratio of P. pistaciae was unaffected by host instar.

The seasonal forms and reproductive potential of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae (Hem., Psylloidea)

Abstract: Two distinct seasonal forms were found for the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae, the most serious insect pest of cultivated pistachio trees, Pistacia vera in Iran. The two forms are different morphologically as well as biologically. The summer form is of light colour and readily mates and starts egg laying 1–2 days after emergence, whereas, the winter form is larger, generally darker and in reproductive diapause. The first form is observed under long photoperiod, while the second form is induced under a combination of short photoperiod and low temperature. The combination of long photoperiod and warm temperature enhanced post‐emergence ovarian development in the winter form, showing a close inverse correlation between pre‐oviposition period and increasing temperatures. Both forms of A. pistaciae are adapted to a wide temperature range of 20–30°C for reproduction, and the fecundity of psyllid adults of either summer‐ or winter forms was found to be very high under experimental conditions.

Parasitoids associated with the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae, in Iran

The parasitoids associated with the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer, were investigated at three pistachio plantations in Rafsanjan, Iran. Of the 6504 wasps emerging from mummified psyllids, 46% were the primary parasitoid Psyllaephagus pistaciae Ferrière, and the remaining 54% represented six species of hymenopterous hyperparasitoids, including Chartocerus kurdjumovi (Nikol’skaja), Marietta picta (André), Pachyneuron aphidis (Bouché), Pachyneuron muscarum (Linnaeus), Psyllaphycus diaphorinae (Hayat), and Syrphophagus aphidivorus (Mayr). Lysiphlebus fabarum Marshall, the parasitoid of Aphis gossypii Glover and Aphis craccivora Koch present on weeds, was found to be an alternative host for three major hyperparasitoids of A. pistaciae. The most abundant hyperparasitoid was S. aphidivorus, appearing during the growing season in all trial locations on psyllids and aphids in pistachio orchards. The weed-infesting aphids, along with their primary parasitoid, can act as a reservoir of A. pistaciae secondary parasitoids. Therefore, parasitized aphids allow populations of secondary parasitoids to increase and consequently to apply higher pressure on P. pistaciae. We detected that two primary parasitoid species, including P. pistaciae and L. fabarum, attacking different species of hosts interact indirectly through shared secondary parasitism. It is suggested that the community structure of A. pistaciae may be influenced by apparent competition, although more work is needed to provide firm evidence.

Life history parameters of the coccinellid beetle, Oenopia conglobata contaminata, an important predator of the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae (Hemiptera: Psylloidea)

The predatory beetle, Oenopia conglobata contaminata, is associated with the common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae, the major pistachio pest in Iran. Successful development and reproduction on both A. pistaciae and Aphis gossypii (the major weed aphid in the pistachio orchards) indicated they were suitable prey for O. conglobata contaminata. Under ample prey supply, larval development on A. pistaciae was shorter and mortality was lower compared to those reared on A. gossypii. Furthermore, this ladybird attacks and destroys a large number of psyllid nymphs during the whole of its larval period (620±17 fourth stage nymphs) and also in its adult stage (191±7.5 4th stage nymphs daily). The optimum temperature for development was 30°C, the theoretical threshold for development was 13°C and thermal requirements from egg to adult was estimated as 196 degree-days (°D). Fecundity for the first 21 days of adult life was 387 and 355 eggs when females fed on A. pistaciae and A. gossypii nymphs, respectively. The intrinsic rate of increase (rm) at 27.5°C was 0.19 and 0.18 when ladybirds were fed on psyllid and aphid nymphs, respectively. In a laboratory choice experiment, the adult ladybirds showed a strong preference for A. pistaciae compared to A. gossypii. This was in agreement with our field observation that O. conglobata contaminata is almost always found on psyllid colonies, even when aphids were plentiful on weeds in the pistachio orchards. The influence of the predator on psyllid seasonal population under natural condition was not studied in this investigation and this subject must be measured in subsequent trials.

BIONOMICS OF THE COMMON PISTACHIO PSYLLA, AGONOSCENA PISTACIAE, IN IRAN

The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), is the key pest of cultivated pistachio trees, Pistacia vera (L.), and is distributed throughout all the pistachio-producing regions in Iran. This study focused on various features of the pest and was carried out both in the laboratory and the field under natural conditions. It was found that the common pistachio psylla has two seasonal forms. Clear morphological and physiological differences between the adult psyllid morphs were observed. However, both temperature and photoperiod strongly influenced diapause induction and termination in this insect. The optimum constant temperature for development was 30°C, however, the psyllid nymphs developed quickly, between 25 and 32.5°C. Both summer- and winter-forms of A. pistaciae are adapted to a wide temperature range for reproduction. Egg laying only started after mating and oviposition continued until death. This study indicated the important role of male psyllids in progeny production in the common pistachio psylla. In addition, several life-cycle parameters including thermal thresholds and constant, actual fecundity and intrinsic rate of natural increase for the psyllid were determined. In the Kerman province, the winter-form adult psyllids first emerged in early October and continued throughout the autumn until early December, emigrating towards the overwintering sites. Afterwards, the winter-forms appear in the pistachio orchards in the late winter and early spring and attack pistachio trees, feed on swollen buds, young leaves and shoots and establish the summer-form generation. Most first generation adult psyllids appeared around early May, when the founders’ winter-form psyllid was still active on the pistachio trees. The pest population rapidly increases from early spring to late autumn. However, the presence of high population densities of psyllid nymphs and adults causes significant economic losses, particularly from the late spring to nearly the end of summer. The control of this pest relies almost exclusively on pesticides. However, the parasitoid wasp, Psyllaephagus pistaciae Ferriere, and the predatory ladybird, Oenopia conglobata (Linnaeaus), are the major biocontrol agents for this insect. The effects of other potential predators such as lacewing, ladybirds, mites, spiders and anthocorid bugs have not yet been fully investigated, but it is thought that these natural enemies all play a significant role in the control of the common pistachio psylla, particularly in the spring and autumn.