Pipe-borne Water Supply Research Articles

Water quality assessment of two perennial streams in a rainforest region of Nigeria

Physical and chemical parameters are vital indicators to determine the quality of water people consume. Many people rely on collected stream water for consumption and other daily needs because of non-availability or inadequate supply of pipe borne water in most Nigerian settlements. This study was carried out to assess the physical and chemical characteristics of Ibiekuma and Ogidikpe streams in Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria. The physical and chemical parameters (temperature, pH, turbidity and dissolved oxygen) of the water samples were determined using standard analytical techniques. All parameters analyzed revealed compliance with drinking water standard except pH in site A (Ibiekuma Stream) that was below permissible limit in some locations. Although the parameters examined were within permissible limits, simple hygiene and public awareness should be encouraged to avoid increase in contamination.

Geospatial mitigation of the effect of undulating terrain on efficient water distribution network: a case study of Enugu Urban, South-Eastern Nigeria

Abstract Undulating terrain has continued to aggravate pipe-borne water supply challenges in the Enugu Urban area. The rapid increase in urbanization has worsened the situation. This, therefore, calls for the deployment of systems that can support the effective planning of surface and underground facilities for the development of an efficient water distribution network in this region. Remote Sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Hydrographic Survey, and Geophysical Survey, collectively referred to as geospatial technologies, have been combined in different ways by developed nations to resolve challenges facing surface and underground facilities. This study, therefore, demonstrates the application of this technology in designing an efficient water distribution network for urban areas with undulating terrain. The spot heights dataset extracted from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) satellite imagery offered the bases for the re-structure of the existing water distribution network map to accommodate the undulation of the topography. This was integrated into a GIS tool to synergize the topography with the radial and dead-end standard water distribution patterns. The result was a sub-division of the Enugu Urban Area into 12 zones with reservoirs at the most elevated points to facilitate water reticulation by gravity. The efficacy of this distribution network map was confirmed suitable with EPANET software.

Sustainable Strategies for Solving Perennial Water Crisis in Enugu Using Infiltration/Sump Technology

Purpose: Perennial water crises is a monster that threatens the very essence of human existence globally. Efforts have been made to stamp out water crises by the provision of pipe borne water, artisanal well, etc but to no avail. Notwithstanding these efforts, a visit to the streets of Enugu showed the excruciating hardship faced by the people as a result of scarcity of portable water. This study aimed at determining the current condition of portable water supply, challenges to sustainable water supply as well as suitability and sustainability of harvesting portable water through infiltration/sump technology adaptation in solving Enugu metropolis water crises.
 Methodology: The survey and experimental research methods were used. A total number of 48 water samples were aseptically collected from 3 points on a weekly basis. The points are A: from the flowing Asata River, B: from the infiltration sump and, C: from the locally fabricated water treatment plant. These samples were subjected to physical, chemical and biological analysis to determine the level of impurities, chemical and biological pollutants contained therein. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) was used to determine the concentration of heavy metals in the water samples. Direct culture plate count was used to determine bacterial load while sample concentration method was used for the microscopic examination.
 Findings: The results were presented in tables and analyzed with simple percentages. It was discovered that water supply to Enugu residents has been abysmally low compared to the Enugu State Water Corporation (ENSWC) installed capacity. Out of the six (6) years under study, the highest annual water production of 6,082,962 m3 representing 12.62% of the installed capacity, supplied to the inhabitants of Enugu metropolis was achieved in the year 2018. The study discovered that the raw Asata River is contaminated with (a) heavy metals, (b) E. coli and Coliforms (c) debris, non-metallic contaminants etc. However, with the application of sump/infiltration technology and minimal treatment the river is a veritable and sustainable alternative to the epileptic pipe borne water supply from ENSWC to the inhabitants.
 Recommendation: Adaptation and application of sump/infiltration smart indigenous water harvesting technology in solving the perennial water crisis in Enugu metropolis is recommended.

Occurrence, compositional profiles and health risks assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in groundwater in and around dumpsites in Lagos State, Nigeria

Groundwater from the communities adjoining Abule Egba (ABE), Epe (EPE), Ikorodu (IKR), Olushosun (OSH) and Solous (SOL) dumpsites in Lagos State, Nigeria, were collected and analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Water samples were extracted using liquid-liquid extraction followed by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy analysis using the already validated standard method. PBDEs concentrations ranged from 7 ± 10 (IKR) to 78 ± 109 µgL−1 (ABE) for BDE-28; 5.4 ± 0.3 (OSH) to 31.5 ± 27.3 µgL−1 (ABE) for BDE-47; 17 ± 24 (ABE) to 183 ± 226 µgL−1 for BDE-100; 11.7 ± 16.5 (ABE) to 174 ± 217 µgL−1(EPE) for BDE-99; 117 ± 166 (ABE) to 2034 ± 2819 µg L−1 (EPE) for BDE −183; 296 ± 392 (IKR) to 4283 ± 1278 µg L−1 (EPE) for BDE-209. BDE- 153 and BDE- 154 were not detected in all the water samples, while BDE- 28 was only detected in ABE and IKR water samples. The BDE- 209 was the most dominant congener in all the water samples. The cumulative Hazard Index (HI) values for children through ingestion route ranged from 4.95 E + 00 (SOL) to 4.53 E + 01 (EPE), while in adults, it ranged from 4.25 E + 00 (SOL) to 3.88 E + 01 (EPE). This study confirmed the presence of PBDEs at an elevated concentration in groundwater. Since there is no regular supply of pipe-borne water in the study area, residents consume the contaminated groundwater and may be exposed to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Therefore, the government should provide pipe-borne water for the populace and discourage people from living close to the dumpsites.

Access to Pipe-Born Water Evaluation in Akwanga Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Water is an essential element of the natural resource of the earth that sustains all living creatures on the planet, it`s fundamental importance can never be overemphasized. This study evaluates access to pipe-born water in Akwanga Local Government Area, Nasarawa State. The study identifies the sources of household water supply and identifies the presence of pipelines facilities in each household, to determine if the quantity of pipe water supply meets demands, also assesses the effects of the quantity of water supply on the socioeconomic activity of householders. This study adopted a survey research design. A total of 300 questionnaires were administered to households. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select the respondents. Five wards were selected within the study area, while 60 copies of questionnaires were distributed in each of the selected wards. Data were analyzed and presented using a descriptive form of statistics. The study revealed that most of the pipelines meant for the supply of water were old and inefficient. Therefore, no significant coverage (60%) of pipeline facilities in the study area. Pipe-borne water supply in the study area is not sufficient to meet the demands of the residents due to irregularity in the flow of water; 4.2% of these taps run every day, 8.8% of these taps run once a week, 11.7% of these taps run once in 3 days, 18.4% of these taps run once a year, 22.2% of these run once a month, while 37.7% water used for cooking, washing, drinking and sanitary purposes were mostly sourced from alternative sources that are energy and time consuming and costly to obtain. The average water consumed per person per day in the study area was 37.76 litres which are below the minimum absolute daily water needed 50 litres per person per day as stated by UNDP. Consequently, pipe-borne water supply in the study area does not have any significant impact on the socio-economic activities of residents as people still spent the better part of their time sourcing for water. This study, therefore, recommends that there should be constant monitoring of population growth rate and repairs of damaged pipes and taps in the study area.

Assessment of microbial and heavy metal contamination in shallow hand-dug wells bordering Ona River, Southwest Nigeria.

Ona River is one of the three major rivers draining the city of Ibadan. Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in the metropolis; however, data on quality of shallow aquifers bordering Ona River is relatively scarce. This study aimed to evaluate bacteriological status, heavy metal content, and associated human and ecological health risks in hand-dug wells nearby Ona River. A total of 24 water samples from 12 sampling points were collected for chemical and microbial analyses. Heavy metals and microbial pathogens were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry and total plate count methods, respectively. Analyses of microbial and heavy metal (HMs) data showed that shallow hand-dug wells within the vicinity of Ona River were bacteriologically contaminated while most of analyzed heavy metals (except manganese) exceeded the drinking water quality standards. Interpretation of microbial and heavy metal (HMs) data identified predominance of anthropogenic activities as the major source of contamination in drinking water. Further scrutiny of HM data through integrated pollution indices identified two nearby wells (S7 and S8) exceed the safe limits and pose considerable risk to inhabitants. In terms of ecological risk index (ER), cadmium exhibited considerable to very high ER in all collected samples while manganese and zinc showed low ER in all analyzed water samples. Potential of non-carcinogenic risk through ingestion pathway in the study area was identified with the order of contributive ratios by HMs as Cd > Pb > Zn > Fe > Mn. The calculated target hazard quotient (THQ) due to ingested HMs for three human population categories exceeds the safe limit in the order of adult < children < infants. The study revealed the deteriorated state of waterside shallow hand-dug wells that need immediate actions by relevant stakeholders in water management. The study recommends improved hygienic practices, pretreatment of water before use, and most importantly, provision of potable pipe-borne water supply to the residents of the study area.

Evaluation of the Public Pipe-borne Water supply in Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State, Nigeria

This paper assesses the residents’ access to public pipe-borne water in Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State, Nigeria. The authors analyzed spatial distribution and functionality of public pipe-borne water. They also examined intra-urban variation in the distribution of public pipe-borne water in the study area. The study used primary data which were obtained through random sampling techniques of 400 households, using structured questionnaire in the twelve political administrative wards of the examined area. Physical enumeration was also adopted to identify the functional and non-functional public pipe-borne water points. Descriptive statistics in the form of frequency table and percentages with chi-square were used to describe residents’ demand and accessibility of public pipe-borne water. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine intra-urban variations in the functionality of public pipe-borne water. The results revealed that distribution of public pipe-borne water cut across different localities in the twelve political administrative wards that Ilorin West Local Government consisted of. Although the highest proportion (60.24%) of public pipe-borne water points were observed to be functioning, a significant proportion (39.26%) were not functioning. The highest proportion (95.5%) of the respondents were of the opinion that public pipe-borne water is not regularly available. The findings from Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed significant differences (F=2.702, P=0.004) in the functioning of public pipe-borne water infrastructural elements existing in the examined area. The study concludes by suggesting the need for the government to ensure regular public water supply to meet the residents’ daily needs for water consumption and domestic use, which continue to increase every day.

Variation in existing domestic service level of pipe-borne water supply and associated challenges in a tourism destination of Uyo Capital City, Nigeria

Domestic water supply plays a very significant role in the day to day life of humans in the global society and without water, life cannot be continued and that while water provisions are one of the basic requirements for human’s survival. This study therefore examined the evaluation of pipe borne water supply in Uyo Capital City, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. In an effort to approximate pipe borne water supply in the study area, the research was hinged on the following objectives, to examine variation in the existing domestic service level of pipe-borne water among communities in the study area and to examine the challenges associated with pipe-borne water supply in the area. Furthermore, a multistage sample technique was used to circumvent a practical difficulty in sampling the study area as the region was delineated into six zones. Geographic Information System was employed to collect coordinates while questionnaire was also used for data collections. 400 copies of questionnaires were purposively administered to the respondents in different zones as follows; Uyo (197), Ibesikpo-Asutan (98), Uruan (45), Ibiono-Ibom (9), Itu (30) and Nsit Ibom (21). Nevertheless, additional 25 questionnaires representing about 10% of the staff (248) of Akwa Ibom Water Company Limited were interpreted with statistical techniques. For hypothesis one, which states that there is no significant variation in the existing domestic service level of pipe-borne water among communities. One way analysis of variance was used and it was discovered that existing service level of pipe-borne water does not differ significantly among communities in the study area (p = 0.81. This result was further supported by Water Production and Supply Intensification Model. Grounded on the findings, it is recommended that water distribution network and supply should be expanded to all the communities within the study area by the government. It is also recommended that the government should partner with organisations for a viable pipe-borne water supply to its residents in the area.

Temporal variation of groundwater resources in Ilesa West Local Government, Osun State Nigeria

The study was carried out to investigate the different groundwater resources and to generate the temporal differences over the different seasons in Ilesa West Local Government, Osun State, Nigeria. The LGA has not been provided with municipal pipe-borne water supply for over 30 years, hence they are exclusively using groundwater in form of boreholes, dugwells and springs. The physico- chemical and heavy metal parameters were determined over a period of one year covering the rainy and dry seasons. A total of 69 drinking water points which comprises of 63 dugwells, 5 boreholes and 1 spring were used for the study and they were selected to represent the built-up part of the entire study area adequately. Parameters analysed were pH, electrical conductivity (EC), temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride, sulphate, nitrate, sodium, potassium (K), calcium, magnesium, hardness, alkalinity, bicarbonate using standard methods. Analysis of heavy metals (Fe, Cr) was carried out with atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and microbiological analysis was conducted using most probable number (MPN) of counting coliforms. The data generated were subjected to descriptive statistics and line graph. The analysis of the different groundwater resources revealed a good water quality but the values of pH, TDS, EC, K, were higher than the permissible range. The concentration of Fe and Cr is very high and could constitute some health hazards in some sources. The temporal variation of the water quality parameters did not follow any definite trend but the pH, NO3, TDS, HCO3, SO4, Fe, Cr were highest in the dry months of April and December, while Ca, Mg, K, Na, hardness, and alkalinity were highest in the rainy months of June and August. The percentage of microbial distribution was highest in the months of June in the boreholes and the spring but the distribution in the dugwells was entirely different. The water from the boreholes and dugwells were generally soft and should be checked for plumbo-solvency. It is recommended that a routine monitoring of all the sources should be carried out and a treatment that will reduce the heavy metals concentrations be enforced.&#x0D; Keywords: Groundwater resources, physico-chemical parameters, temporal variations, dugwells, boreholes and spring.

Hydrogeological characteristics of crystalline rock aquifers: implication on sustainable water supply in the basement complex terrain of southwestern Nigeria

Poor understanding of groundwater resources of the basement environment constitutes a barrier to sustainability of current potable groundwater-based supply initiatives in sub-Sahara Africa. This study assesses the influence of aquifer characteristics on groundwater yield potential and the consequent impact on water supply in Osun Drainage Basin within the basement complex area of southwestern Nigeria. Aquifer thickness, longitudinal unit conductance, hydraulic conductivity (K) and transmissivity (T) were derived from the interpretation results of 500 spatially referenced vertical electrical sounding data and subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics show that aquifer thickness is generally low in most part of the study area with the exception of few locations where overburden thickness exceeds 50 m. Delineated aquifers have the capacity to absorb and retain water but with less ability to release the water, as indicated by low mean K (1.6 × 10−4 m/s). Only 1.4% of the aquifers have medium relative K (10−3 m/s), while the remaining 98.65% have low to very low relative K (≤ 10−4 m/s). Computed low mean T (6.2 × 10−3 m2/s) suggests low groundwater yield potential for the study basin. Currently, groundwater resources could only meet 32.7% of the household water demand of the study area and the coverage would reduce to 27.2% in the decade 2021–2030. Therefore, there is an urgent need to focus on surface water development given the fact that annual rainfall is high enough to sustain pipe-borne water supply schemes in the study basin.

Urban Well Characteristics and Groundwater Pollution in Ibadan, Nigeria

In many countries around the world including Nigeria, access to adequate potable water has become a mirage. The supply of pipe-borne water in Nigeria has, over the years, become grossly inadequate or totally non-existent. This has led many people to seek alternative sources of water, especially from hand-dug wells. Most of the hand-dug wells are frequently polluted due to improper location and human anthropogenic activities around the wells. This study was carried out to investigate the physical characteristics of the sampled wells in Ibadan city and their vulnerability to pollutants. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to sample862buildings (4%) of existing buildings (21,391) using wells in six Local Government Areas (LGAs) (Ibadan North, Ibadan North-West, Ibadan South-East, Ido, Egbeda and Ona-Ara) of Ibadan sampled. Microbial analyses were carried out on water samples collected using graph method from 50 wells that were randomly selected in the six LGAs. The study revealed that 97.8% of the wells were shallow; 90.4% were ringed and covered; 91.1% fetched manually from of the wells; 60.1% had no fixed drawer and allowed individuals to bring and use various drawers to fetch water; 8.9% of the wells provided mechanical device to fetch water; 29.9% relied on electricity generator; 41.5% relied on electricity provided by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN); while 28.6% relied on both generator and PHCN. About a half (47.8%) of the sampled wells were located down slope to the septic tank; 75.6% were situated at less than 25metres distance to septic facilities. Significant relationship was established between depth of the wells and groundwater pollution with bacterial count (t=17.230, p≤ 0.000); positive association exist between rings and bacterial count (t=10.209, p≤ 0.000); coliform count (t=-6.764, p≤ 0.000) and total suspended solid (t=-13.023, p≤ 0.000). The use of ring and cover on wells have been proved to be the best for proper hygiene while periodic water quality monitoring and incorporation of household water purification practices with hand-dug well water are recommended.

Patterns of pipe-borne water supply in the Buea Municipality: Challenges and way forward

Abstract: A growing quest in the mind of man today is to establish a balance equation between his activities and the available freshwater. Trillion of dollars have been spent worldwide to reduce water shortages, but governments and stakeholders ubiquitously have failed to empower the city dwellers and to ambush the challenges to pipe borne water supply. In many parts of developing countries including Cameroon, population growth, urbanization and water demands are rising rapidly, whereas water availability, quality, reliability, frequency and distribution are decreasing rapidly due to planning deficiencies, inefficient management and deterioration. This study aimed at examining the patterns of pipe borne water supply in the Buea Municipality, challenges and municipal response. A sample size of 120 inhabitants was taken to represent the entire population in the study area. Simple random sampling technique was then used to identify the most appropriate respondents and locations. Findings were analyzed using Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS), Microsoft excel and represented in the form of tables and figures. Findings revealed that, there is limited water supply reliability, access and distribution in the Buea Municipality attributed to physical and anthropological influences such as inadequate water supply, degradation and poor water management by the municipal authorities. The study look forward to giving recommendations of the use of water storage devices such as water tanks as a short term strategy and the extension of pipes distribution lines to be in direct proportion with population growth among others.

An exploration into the household pipe-borne water consumption: empirical evidence from Sri Lankan household surveys

This paper analyses determinants of households' pipe-borne water consumption in Sri Lanka using data covering the period 1990 to 2013. Employing a two-part estimation model, the study finds that household income, household size, level of education of the household head and age of the household head are positively associated with the likelihood of consuming pipe-borne water and monthly consumption expenditures on pipe-borne water. Moreover, households' demand for pipe-borne water has significantly increased over the years. Therefore, expansion of the pipe-borne water supply network along with demand management strategies would be beneficial to cater the growing demand for pipe-borne water.

Population Growth and Pipe-Borne Water Supply in Calabar Metropolis: Finding the Balance

Population Growth and Pipe-Borne Water Supply in Calabar Metropolis: Finding the Balance

Effect of Storage and Exposure to Sunlight on the Quality of Sachet Water Sold in Ibadan Metropolis

Inadequate pipe borne water supply has led to rapid proliferation of sachet water companies in Nigeria. Recently, another dimension added to public health concerns on water quality is the storage and handling of sachet water by distributors and vendors. This study assessed the effect of storage and exposure to sunlight on the quality of sachet water in Ibadan, Nigeria. An experimental design was adopted. Two hundred sachets of water from ten brands were collected upon production from various factories. Water samples were divided into two groups: storage indoor (room temperature) and storage with exposure to sunlight for four weeks. Physicochemical and bacteriological analyses were carried out on the sachet water samples at baseline and after three days and weeks one to four of storage. The data obtained were analysed using SPSS (20.0). The bacteria isolated were E. coli, S. aureus, K. pneumonia and P.vulgaris. Total bacterial counts decreased in the order: 0 to 1.5x104cfu/100 mL (day 3) > 0 to 9.5x 102 cfu/100 mL (day 7) upon exposure to sunlight, however, there was continuous increase of bacteria count from day seven. Bacteria counts of water stored indoor increased throughout the study period. E. coli was present in all water samples by day 21. There was a significant difference in nitrite concentration between the two storage conditions across study period. This study revealed that storage duration and exposure conditions affect the quality of sachet water for drinking. Quality improvement of sachet water through exposure to sunlight was most effective on third day of exposure, while the maximum time of effectiveness was one week, beyond which the quality deteriorates fast irrespective of the storage condition. Hence, prolonged water storage beyond one week before drinking is discouraged.

Vulnerability of hand-dug wells in the core area of Akure, Nigeria

Hand-dug wells (HDWs) are a major source of water supply in developing nations. This is consequent upon the failure of government to provide safe water to the people. This paper looks at the vulnerability of HDWs in the core area of Akure, Nigeria. The study area is made up of 11 residential quarters with 1149 buildings; 10% of buildings and five wells in each quarter were randomly selected for the study. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and laboratory examinations. Water quality assessment showed that most parameters fall within WHO permissible limits for drinking water. However, microbial examinations indicated that drinking water quality was compromised in two residential quarters as there was evidence of coliform and e-coli. The study also identified other possible sources of water contamination in the study area. This paper recommends regular treatment of wells and the adoption of pipe-borne water supply systems in the city and other similar cities in developing countries.

Prevalence of Dental Fluorosis among Primary School Children in Rural Areas of Tiruchengode Block, Namakkal District, TN, India

Fluoride analysis is one of the major emerging areas of drinking water quality criterion and the majority of people is forced to consume fluoride contaminated water due to necessity. High fluoride ground water is found in many parts of the developing world, and several millions of people rely on groundwater having concentrations more than the WHO, APHA and BIS guidelines. Estimation of fluoride concentrations in groundwater, identification of sources and monitoring the impact of fluoride on school children was undertaken in different villages of Tiruchengode block, Namakkal district, Tamilnadu. Most of the inhabitants of the study area rely on groundwater for domestic use due to inadequate pipe-borne drinking water supply. A preliminary survey showing that some of the residents in selected villages have mottled teeth motivated the study. A database was created by obtaining information on the impact of fluoride on school children. Four primary schools, in four distinct villages were visited and the students interviewed. The presence and severity of dental fluorosis were recorded. Fluoride concentrations in groundwater of these villages were found to be higher than the prescribed limit of APHA. The overall prevalence of dental fluorosis was found to be 28.28 % in our study samples. Based on the finding of this study dental fluorosis was associated with higher fluoride level in groundwater. On a scale of measurement the people are having 0 to grade III stage of dental fluorosis.

English

The supply of pipe borne water in Nigeria has over the years become grossly inadequate or totally non-existent. This has led many people to seek alternative sources of water from streams, springs and especially hand-dug wells. This study was carried out to investigate the bacteriological quality of water from hand–dug wells in Ibadan city. This was done by investigating bacterial indicator of water quality in samples collected from 50 hand-dug wells and three bore holes from five different local government areas within Ibadan Municipal city and examined for total coliform and faecal coliform. Water samples from 96% of the wells were found to be contaminated with both total coliform and faecal coliform. The total coliform counts and fecal coliform counts ranged between 0 to 160x103/100 ml and 0 to 22x103/100 ml, respectively. The predominant bacterial isolates include Escherichia coli (38.5%), Klebsiella spp. (16.9%), Staphylococcus aureus (13.8%) and Enterobacter spp. (9.2%). While antibiotic susceptibility to nitrofurantoin (96.9%), gentamycin (93.6%) and streptomycin (93.3%) was high, it was low in ampicillin (37.8%) and to a lesser extent in Cotrimoxazole(66.7%). 24.1% of the isolates were multidrug resistant with about seven patterns observed. Hand-dug wells in the area of study were highly contaminated with pathogenic bacteria and this exposes consumers of water drawn from these wells to the risk of contracting various waterborne diseases. Key words: Bacterial pathogens, coliforms, hand dug well, water borne, disease.

Child health inequalities and its dimensions in Pakistan.

Background and Objective:Poverty and inequality in health is pervasive in Pakistan. The provisions and conditions of health are very dismal. A significant proportion of the population (16.34%) of Pakistan is under 5 years, but Pakistan is in the bottom 5% of countries in the world in terms of spending on health and education. It is ranked the lowest in the world with sub-Sahara Africa in terms of child health equality. The objective of this study was to examine child health inequalities in Pakistan.Materials and Methods:We analyzed data from Pakistan Integrated Household Survey/Household Integrated Economic Survey 2001–2002, collected by the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. Coverage of diarrhea and immunization were used as indicators of child health. Stata 11.0 was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics including frequency distribution and proportions for categorical variables and mean for continuous variables were computed.Results:Children under 5 years of age account for about 16.34% of the total population, 11.76% (2.5 million) of whom suffered from diarrhea in 1-month. The average duration of a diarrheal episode was 7 days. About 72% of the children who had diarrhea lived in a house without pipe-borne water supply. Around 22% children who had diarrhea had no advice or treatment. More than one-third of the households had no toilet in the house, and only 29% of the households were connected with pipe-borne drinking water. About 7.73% (1.6 million) children had never been immunized. The main reason for nonimmunization was parents’ lack of knowledge and of immunization.Conclusion:Child health inequalities in Pakistan are linked with several factors such as severe poverty, illiteracy, lack of knowledge, and awareness of child healthcare, singularly inadequate provision of health services, and poor infrastructure.

Assessing the Sustainability of Borehole as an Alternative to Pipe-borne Water Supply in Some Selected Communities in Akoko Area of Ondo State, Nigeria

Assessing the Sustainability of Borehole as an Alternative to Pipe-borne Water Supply in Some Selected Communities in Akoko Area of Ondo State, Nigeria