Pine Shavings Research Articles

Effects of In-House Composting of Litter on Bacterial Levels

Placing 1-d-old chicks on used litter may lead to unexpected health problems due to high bacteriological counts. Composting litter between flocks is one possible method of decreasing bacteriological counts. At the end of two 7-wk broiler growouts, in-house composting of pine shaving litter was performed, and bacterial counts were taken. In the first trial, composted pine shavings attained an internal temperature of 55°C that lasted for 40 h. After the initial temperature gain, the composted litter maintained a steady temperature of 35°C. Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial counts were lower in composted vs. uncomposted litter. Moisture content was lower in the uncomposted pile than the compost pile. Water activity was higher in the composted pile than in the uncomposted litter. Among the 8 treatments in the second trial, litter that was composted, wetted, and covered achieved the highest internal temperatures of >50°C, which was sustained until trial termination (7 d). The other treatments did not achieve a temperature increase of this magnitude and, if not wetted, the observed temperature increase lasted <24 h. In litter that had been composted for 1 wk, moisture content was lower regardless of treatment. Water activity was highest in treatments that had water added and that were not covered. Composted, covered, not wetted pine shavings produced the lowest aerobic and anaerobic bacterial counts. The results of these 2 trials show that in-house composting of pine shaving litter can reduce bacterial counts, especially when the compost pile is covered.

Preference for bedding material in Syrian hamsters

This study aimed to determine whether Syrian (golden) hamsters, Mesocricetus auratus, prefer certain bedding materials and whether bedding material can affect paw condition, body weight gain and wheel-running activity. In a first experiment, 26 male hamsters had access to two connected cages, each cage containing a different bedding material (either pine shavings, aspen shavings, corn cob or wood pellets). In a second experiment, 14 male hamsters had access to four connected cages that contained the different bedding materials and also a piece of paper towel to serve as nest material. In a third experiment, 30 male hamsters were each placed in a single cage, 10 of them with pine shavings, 10 with aspen shavings and 10 with corn cob, and they were monitored for 50 days. Significant preferences in the first experiment were: pine shavings over aspen shavings, corn cob over wood pellets, pine shavings over corn cob and aspen shavings over wood pellets (aspen shavings versus corn cob was not tested). However, there was no significant preference expressed in the second experiment, suggesting that the general preference for shavings in the first experiment was based on bedding material suitability as a nesting material. No significant effect of bedding material on paw condition, body weight gain and wheel-running activity was detected. None of the four bedding materials tested in this study can be judged to be inappropriate in the short term if nesting material is added to the cage and if the litter is changed regularly.

The Effect of Litter Type and Litter Thickness on Broiler Carcass Traits

In this research, straw and pine shavings were used as litter. Litter thicknesses were 5, 8 and 11cm respectively. 18 chicks were placed per m and total 120 chicks were used in 3 groups. The study was 2 performed two replicates. According to results of the investigation, the best live weight (1.67±0.11 kg) and carcass weight (1135.06±84.47g), heart weight (10.48±1.68g), liver (38.39±5.51g) and gizzard weight (37.10±4.40 g), and carcass yield (67.90±3.2%) were obtained from 5cm-pine shaving group. These results were significantly higher than the results of 11cm-straw and 11cm mixed form. Desired lowest abdominal fat level (17.28±2.6 kg) and feed efficiency rate (2.25) were also obtained from pine shavings of 5 cm thickness.

Use of a litter material made from cotton waste, gypsum, and old newsprint for rearing broiler chickens

Three experiments, which included 4 broiler flocks, were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing broilers. The control bedding was pine shavings. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), was a chopped material made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint using a proprietary paper manufacturing process (Novovita, Inc., Raleigh, NC). All birds were fed the same feeding program: starter from 0 to 3 wk, grower from 3 to 5 or 6 wk, and finisher during the last week. Birds were marketed at either 6 or 7 wk of age. Feed consumption by pen and individual bird BW were measured at 3 and 6 or 7 wk. Mean BW and feed conversion, adjusted to include weight of mortality, were calculated. A sample of birds (n = 10) from each pen was evaluated for hock and foot pad condition. Each pen was evaluated at the end of the trial for litter cake index in 3 of the 4 flocks. Litter cake index scores were generally higher for birds reared on AC litters. There were no other differences in bird performance for any of the flocks. In conclusion, broilers reared on AC bedding perform as well as those reared on pine shavings.

Soil compaction and poultry litter effects on factors affecting nitrogen availability in a claypan soil

Soil compaction may affect N mineralization and the subsequent fate of N in agroecosystems. Laboratory incubation and field experiments were conducted to determine the effects of surface soil compaction on soil N mineralization in a claypan soil amended with poultry litter (i.e., Turkey excrement mixed with pine shavings as bedding). In a laboratory study, soil from the surface horizon of a Mexico silt loam soil was compacted to four bulk density levels (1.2, 1.4, 1.6 and 1.8 Mg m −3) with and without poultry litter and incubated at 25 °C for 42 days. A field trial planted to corn ( Zea mays L.) was also conducted in 2002 on a Mexico silt loam claypan soil in North Central Missouri. Soil was amended with litter (0 and 19 Mg ha −1) and left uncompacted or uniformly compacted. Soil compaction decreased soil inorganic N by a maximum of 1.8 times in the laboratory study; this effect was also observed at all depths of the field trial. Compacted soil with a litter amendment accumulated NH 4 +-N up to 7.2 times higher than the noncompacted, litter-amended soil until Day 28 of the laboratory incubation and in the beginning of the growing season of the field study. Ammonium accumulation may have been due to decreased soil aeration under compacted conditions. Application of litter increased soil N mineralization throughout the growing season. In the laboratory study, soil inorganic N in unamended soil was negatively correlated with soil bulk density and the proportion of soil micropores, but was positively related with soil total porosity and the proportion of soil macropores. These results indicate that soil compaction, litter application and climate are interrelated in their influences on soil N mineralization in agroecosystems.

Influence of Bedding Material on Ammonia Emissions from Cattle Excreta

Dairy cattle barns are a major source of NH3 emissions to the atmosphere. Previous studies have shown that the bedding material used in the barn can influence the magnitude of NH3 emissions, but little is known about which bedding characteristics are important in this respect. The aims of this study were to assess, at a laboratory scale, the relative importance of the chemical [pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), C:N] and physical (urine absorbance capacity, bulk density) characteristics of 5 bedding materials (chopped wheat straw, sand, pine shavings, chopped newspaper, chopped corn stalks, and recycled manure solids) on NH3 emissions from dairy cattle urine. Recycled manure solids were the most absorbent of the bedding types (4.2g of urine/g of bedding), and sand was the least (0.3g of urine/g of bedding). When beddings were soaked in urine to their absorbance capacities, NH3 emissions over 48h (expressed as a proportion of the urine N absorbed) were not significantly different among bedding types, despite differences in initial bedding pH, CEC, and C:N. When equal volumes of urine were applied to equal depths of dry bedding, NH3 emissions over 48h were significantly less from sand and pine shavings (23 and 42% of applied urine N, respectively) than from chopped newspaper, chopped corn stalks, and recycled manure solids (62, 68, and 65% of applied urine N, respectively), whereas emissions from chopped wheat straw (55% applied urine N) only differed significantly from that from sand. Differences in the chemical characteristics of the beddings did not explain differences in emission; NH3 emissions increased linearly with CEC contrary to expectations, and there was no significant relationship with initial bedding pH. The physical characteristics of bedding materials were of more importance, as NH3 emissions increased linearly with absorbance capacity and decreased as the bulk density of the packed beddings increased.

Bacterial Levels of Pine Shavings and Sand Used as Poultry Litter

Bacterial loads associated with sand and pine shavings litter were determined in 2 grow-out experiments with broilers that lasted 7 wk. These experiments consisted of 8 pens each of pine shavings and sand. Birds were placed with 1.16 ft2/bird. Litter samples were collected weekly and plated to enumerate (cfu/g) aerobic, anaerobic, and enteric bacterial counts. In addition each sample was analyzed for water activity and percentage moisture levels. Overall, sand litter had lower bacterial counts, water activity, and moisture level compared with pine shavings litter. This work illustrates that, bacteriologically, sand can be a viable litter alternative to pine shavings if locally available.

Soil carbon dioxide efflux from a claypan soil affected by surface compaction and applications of poultry litter

The effects of soil compaction on soil physical properties may alter soil microbial activities and processes, including carbon (C) cycling, and possibly affect agricultural production and environmental degradation. This study investigated the effects of surface soil compaction on soil C mineralization in a claypan soil amended with poultry litter (i.e. turkey excrement mixed with pine shavings as bedding). In a laboratory study, a Mexico silt loam soil was compacted to four bulk density levels (1.2, 1.4, 1.6 and 1.8 Mg m −3 ) with and without poultry litter and incubated at 25 °C for 42 days. A field experiment with plots that were maintained fallow was also conducted in 2001 and 2002 on the same claypan soil in North Central Missouri. Soil was amended with litter (0 and 19 Mg ha −1 ) and left uncompacted or uniformly compacted. Results showed that soil CO 2 efflux was decreased by compaction up to 72% in the laboratory study and 46% in the field study of 2002 ( P < 0.05). Litter application enhanced soil CO 2 efflux ( P < 0.05) due to the addition of readily available C from litter. In the laboratory study, soil CO 2 efflux was negatively correlated with soil bulk density and the proportion of micropores ( P < 0.05). Conversely, soil CO 2 efflux was positively related with total porosity and the proportion of macropores ( P < 0.05). In the field, surface soil compaction caused changes in soil water content and soil aeration, which may have had the greatest effect on variation in soil CO 2 efflux. These results indicate that both soil compaction and litter application change the rate of soil C mineralization, and the magnitude of those changes is modified by climatic variation.

Dairy Compost as a Source of Turkey Brooder Bedding

Dairy compost (DC) was evaluated as a possible bedding substrate for brooding turkeys. This study compared livability, weight gain, and footpad score between pine shavings (PS) and DC for 2 strains of turkeys. There were no significant differences in either strain for livability through 35 d of age. Mean body weight at 35 d in the DC treatment compared with PS was less in strain B but not significantly different in strain A. Footpad score in the DC treatment was significantly greater in both strains compared with PS; however, brooder performance as measured by mortality and ambulatory disturbances was not affected in either strain. Results suggest DC may have limited but possible value as a bedding material for brooding turkeys.

Biological denitrification of drinking water using various natural organic solid substrates

Denitrification of drinking water was studied using various natural organic solid substrates (NOSS) such as poplar, hornbeam, pine shavings and wheat straw as a carbon source in a batch unit. The highest nitrate removal efficiency was observed with the wheat straw, so it was chosen as the carbon source for biodenitrification in an upflow laboratory reactor. In order to remove solid particles from the effluent water, a sand filter unit was placed after the denitrification reactor. The soluble DOC contents in the reactor affected the efficiency of nitrate elimination and nitrate concentration of the effluent water remained below acceptable values (50 mg/l NO3-). In order to remove colour, DOC and nitrate from the water, powdered activated carbon adsorption studies were performed in the batch unit.

Fungal Transformation of an Antimicrobial Fluoroquinolone Drug During Growth on Poultry Litter Materials

The ability of a nonpathogenic fungus, Pestalotiopsis guepini, to metabolize fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agents during growth on poultry litter materials was investigated. Sterilized rice hulls, ground corncobs, and pine shavings in glass jars covered with foil were moistened with sterile water and inoculated with P. guepini. The litter materials then were dosed with norfloxacin and incubated for 20 d. In rice-hull cultures, P. guepini produced 4 metabolites: 7-amino-1-ethyl- 6-fluoro-4-oxo-1,4-dihydroquinolone-3-carboxylic acid, N-formylnorfloxacin, N-acetylnorfloxacin, and desethylene-N-acetylnorfloxacin. In corncob cultures, the fungus produced N-formylnorfloxacin and N-acetylnorfloxacin. In pine-shavings cultures, there was little growth of the fungus and no metabolism of norfloxacin. The results suggest that fungi that grow on poultry litter may degrade residues of antimicrobial drugs.

Effects of Dietary Mannan Oligosaccharide, Bacitracin Methylene Disalicylate, or Both on the Live Performance and Intestinal Microbiology of Turkeys

Hybrid male turkeys were fed to 18 wk of age in a completely randomized design with 10 replicate pens (18 birds each) per treatment to compare growth promoters. Four dietary treatments were used: negative control (CON), bacitracin methylene disalicyate (BMD) at 55 mg/kg to 6 wk and 27.5 mg/kg thereafter, mannan oligosaccharide (MOS) at 0.1% to 6 wk and 0.05% thereafter, and BMD and MOS at concentrations listed above. There were 3 toms/m2 (3.59 ft2/tom) on fresh pine shavings inoculated with used litter. A 6-phase feeding program was used, with crumbles the first 3 wk and pellets thereafter. At wk 6 and 18, one bird per pen was killed, and the large intestinal microbial populations, after being frozen, were enumerated (i.e., bifidobacteria, Clostridium perfringens, coliforms, enterococci, Escherichia coli, lactobacilli, and total anerobes).Body weights at wk 18 were as follows: CON, 11.87 kg; BMD, 12.46 kg; MOS: 12.56 kg; and BMD + MOS, 12.79 kg. The BMD and MOS turkeys were (P < 0.05) heavier than CON birds, and those fed the combination were significantly heavier than all other treatments. At wk 18, BMD + MOS feed conversion ratio of 2.66 was significantly lower than CON at 3.00 with BMD and MOS being intermediate (2.83 and 2.79, respectively). Mortality was not affected by treatment. The BMD and MOS each reduced large intestinal concentrations of Clostridium perfringens (log transformed data analysis) at wk 6 but not at wk 18. The BMD or MOS each improved turkey performance, and when used together, exhibited further beneficial effects.

Effects of Calsporin® on Turkey Performance, Carcass Yield and Nitrogen Reduction

Calsporin®, a probiotic that contains a strain of Bacillus subtilus in a spore form, has been used to increase performance of several species. An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of Calsporin® addition on gain, feed conversion, nitrogen excretion, and salmonella spp. count from the intestinal tract compared to a commercial antibiotic (Bacitracin-Zinc) in male turkeys to market age. Six hundred Hybrid large white tom poults were purchased from a commercial hatchery at day of hatch and randomly allotted into 24 pens, blocked by treatment. Treatments consisted of Calsporin® added at 3 0 grams per ton of the diet , Bacitracin-zinc at 50 grams per ton or no additive. Birds were housed in an industry standard curtain-sided barn on used pine shavings. Standard corn, soybean meal, animal by-product diets where used for all treatments with nutrient levels based on the 1994 NRC requirements for turkeys. Individual bird weights and pen feed consumption where collected at 21, 42, 63, 84, 105, 126 days. Daily mortality was collected and feed:gain was adjusted to account for mortality. Litter samples where taken from ten random pens at day 63. At 126 days of age three toms per pen where selected based on average pen weight and processed the following day to determine carcass and parts yield. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a randomized block design using the general linear model. By week 12 the treatments that contained either Calsporin® or Bacitracin-zinc had a significantly (p < 0.05) improved gain compared to the treatment without either of the products . For the 0 to 15 and 0 to 18 week phases the birds without additives gained significantly (p< 0.05) less weight compared to all other treatments. No differences in feed efficiency, yield or mortality were observed. Litter samples indicated a reduction in ammonia volitization in Calsporin® fed birds. These data would indicate that Calsporin® may be used successfully as an antibiotic replacement in market turkeys.

Evaluation of Rice Hull Ash as Broiler Litter

SUMMARY Three trials were conducted to examine the efficacy of rice hull ash as a litter material for broiler chickens. Each 42-d trial used the following litter materials: pine shavings, rice hull ash, and rice hull ash blended with pine shavings. In trial 1, pine shavings (PS), rice hull ash (RHA), and a 50/50 blend of PS and RHA were used as the 3 litter treatments. In trials 2 and 3, PS, RHA, PS/RHA (50/50), PS/RHA (70/30), and PS/RHA (70/30 layered) were used as the 5 litter treatments. Body weight, feed conversion, and NH3 production, N, phosphate, and potash in litter were determined at the end of each trial. Body weight and feed conversion were not consistently altered by any of the litter treatments among the 3 trials. Likewise, NH3, N, phosphate, and potash in litter were not consistently altered by any of the litter treatments among the 3 trials. RHA alone or in combination with PS can be used as litter material for broiler chickens with no adverse effects on broiler performance, litter NH3 production, or litter fertilizer value.

Sand Litter Temperatures During Brooding

Sand is being evaluated in broiler houses as a potential bedding material. A concern regarding sand temperature has arisen as a possible brooding problem. In this study, surface and subsurface temperatures of bedding materials were evaluated for sand and pine shavings (PS) when used as litter in broiler houses. Temperatures were evaluated for new and used sand compared to new and used PS. Sand and PS were placed into 61 × 61 cm (2 × 2 ft) plastic trays 7.62 cm (3 in) deep. Electric brooders were placed 38.10 cm (15 in) above the bedding surface and set at 45°C. Maximum temperature and time to reach maximum temperature were measured. Temperature measurements were taken on the surface and 7.62 cm below the surface with an electric temperature/logger. Results showed a significant maximum surface temperature difference (P < 0.05) only when new sand and new PS were compared (38.0 vs. 43.5°C). There were no significant differences in maximum temperature at 3 in below the surface (33.0 vs. 32.7°C) for PS and sand. Time to reach maximum temperature for new PS and sand surfaces were also NS (9.1 vs. 7.6 h), along with the measurements at 7.62 cm below surface (11.6 vs. 9.7 h). No significant differences were found when comparing maximum temperature and time to maximum temperature between used sand and PS at surface or 7.62 cm deep. In conclusion, new sand does not require extra heating time before chick placement in warm weather. Due to a lower maximum temperature (5.5°C less than PS), new sand should be placed during summer months. Used sand with adequate organic matter was numerically, but not significantly, cooler than new or used PS.

Pathology and Histology of Dietary Tryptophan Deficiency in Broiler Chicks

The purpose of this experiment was to characterize a lesion of the rhamphotheca associated with tryptophan (TIRP) deficiency, search for other histological abnormalities,and determine whether bird size and housing conditions are contributing factors to these lesions. Day-old broiler chicks (Ross X Ross 308) were placed in either floor pens with fresh pine shavings or Petersime battery brooders with two pens of 10 chicks each per treatment. Broiler chicks from 0 to 21 days of age were fed adequate (0.24%) and deficient (0.09%) levels of TRP in diets based on corn, corn gluten meal, and gelatin. Separate groups of control chicks were pair fed daily with the deficient chicks. Deficient chicks grew less efficiently than did the pair-fed controls. Upon gross examination, a lesion of the maxillary rhamphotheca in the vicinity of the nares was observed in 61% of TRP-deficient birds housed in the battery and 13% of the birds housed in floor pens. A similar gross lesion was only observed in one control bird. These lesions were located along the upper portion of the beak between the nares and appeared as a crusty or scab-like area on gross examination, composed of detritus, heterophils, and plasma protein. Inflammation occasionally was observed at the dermoepidermal junction. The incidence of lesions was reduced in floor pens compared to battery brooders, but similarly sized birds did not exhibit the lesion. The number of lesions seen grossly and histologically in TRP-deficient birds, as compared to control birds, supports the hypothesis that TRP deficiency is the primary cause of these lesions around the nares of broilers. Secondary environmental factors, perhaps coprophagy, also influence the incidence of the lesion.

Heat Treatment of Turkey Litter for Reuse as Bedding

Local and national laws regulating poultry litter (PL) land application may require that PL be applied based on crop needs and PL nutrient content such as N and P. In addition, some may require monitoring of soil metals such as Cu and Zn. Even with efforts to decrease fecal nutrient excretion, there is also a need to extend the useful life of current bedding materials and to develop alternative uses of spent PL. Heat treatment of PL may extend bedding life and offer alternative uses of PL. The objective of this study was to determine if heat processed turkey litter (TL) can be reused as bedding for turkeys. Pine shavings (PS) which had been used as bedding to rear Large White male turkeys from hatch to 20 weeks of age was processed at 95 and 220 C in an enclosed auger system. Four litter treatments (LT) were used: 1) control - new PS (T ), o 1 2) TL processed at 95 C (T ), 3) a 70:30 (w/w) mixture of TL processed at 95 or 220 C (T ) and 4) a 95:5 o o 2 3 (w/w) mixture of TL processed at 95 or 220 C (T ). These bedding mixtures were placed in 36 floor pens in o 4 a randomized block design to provide 9 replicate pens per LT. Thirty Large White turkey hen poults were placed in each pen on day of hatch. The birds were reared to 14 wk. Mortality and feed consumption were monitored. Period and cumulative feed conversion (FC) ratios were calculated. Regression analysis of SAS, Inc. was used for data analysis. The LS Means procedure was used to separate treatment means (P<0.05). At 6 wks, T hens were heavier than T (1.78 kg), T (1.80 kg) or T (1.81 kg) hens. There were no differences 3 1 2 4 in BW at 10 (5.42 kg) or 14 wk (8.67 kg) among treatments. There were no differences in FC. The LT did not affect bird mortality. Litter treated by the heat process used for this study produces a bedding material suitable for rearing market turkeys.

Direct lateral transmission of Histomonas meleagridis in turkeys.

The lateral transmission of Histomonas meleagridis in turkeys was studied in floor pens without the presence of Heterakis gallinarum. Battery-reared poults (120) were transferred at 2 wk of age to concrete-floored floor pens with fresh pine shavings litter (40/group). One group received no exposure. In other groups, either 10% or 25% of the birds were inoculated per cloaca with cultured H. meleagridis (200,000/bird) and placed in the pens as seeder birds. Inoculated birds died at 10-18 days postinfection (PI) showing typical liver and cecal lesions of histomoniasis. Birds in the high-exposure group died of histomoniasis beginning 16 days PI and continuing to 100% mortality by day 23 PI. Birds in the low-exposure (LE) group died beginning on day 19 PI and continuing through day 31 PI. All but one LE bird alive on day 31 PI had severe liver and cecal lesions of histomoniasis at necropsy. There was no evidence of histomoniasis in unexposed birds. No cecal worms (H. gallinarum) were found at necropsy of dead birds or in unexposed birds at the end of the experiment. Even though H. gallinarum is the only known reservoir for H. meleagridis, these results suggest that lateral transmission of histomoniasis through a flock can occur readily through normal contact between uninfected birds and infected birds and their droppings in the total absence of cecal worms.

Some alternative litter materials used for growing broilers and turkeys

This paper discusses materials used as bedding or litter for the rearing of broilers and turkeys in the U.S.A. The U.S. poultry industry has historically used pine shavings as the litter of choice for many years. Sawdust has replaced pine shavings in many areas, however, not by choice, but because pine shavings have become increasingly difficult to obtain. Regionally, rice hulls, straw, and peanut hulls can be found in use by poultry producers for litter. Re-cycled paper products have received a lot of research and development, but have not had a great deal of acceptance by the poultry industry. Sand is another alternative bedding that is currently being tested in southern climates. Alternative litter materials for poultry will continue to be researched and evaluated, and pine shavings or sawdust will probably continue to be used as the benchmark comparison. However, while bird performance will always be a threshold criterion, cost and availability will ultimately determine the adoption of new or alternative litter materials by poultry growers and the poultry industry.

Pelletized Newspaper Bedding for Turkeys and Its Effect On Brooding Performance

Wood shavings used for poultry bedding may become increasingly difficult or expensive to obtain. A post-consumer paper product, derived of pelletized newspaper, was evaluated to determine the feasibility of its use as an alternative type of turkey bedding. Results of these trials indicate that a pelletized newspaper product can be used as successfully as pine shavings for bedding under brooding turkeys. Turkeys brooded on the newspaper bedding had weight gains equal to their shavings-brooded counterparts. Mortality was reduced by using the pelletized newspaper.