Pine Oil Research Articles

The beneficiation of the Pütürge pyrophyllite ore by flotation: mineralogical and chemical evaluation

AbstractSamples from the pyrophyllite reserves in the Malatya–Pütürge region, used in the production of the whitest cement in Europe, were beneficiated using flotation. The mineralogical composition of the natural pyrophyllite, as determined using X-ray diffraction, includes pyrophyllite, kaolinite, quartz, illite–mica and feldspar. The chemical composition of pyrophyllite contains 69.75% SiO2 and 23.04% Al2O3. The pyrophyllite percentage (40–45 wt.%) of the natural sample increased to 60–80 wt.% after flotation. In flotation experiments, the effects of reagent amounts, types and their mixtures were investigated. Methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) and pine oil as frothers and kerosene as a collector were used in the flotation studies. The use of reagents as mixtures has a positive effect on the beneficiation compared to use on their own. The best result was obtained for a mixture of MIBC with kerosene, which is a non-ionic hydrocarbon oil, yielding a concentrate containing 26.63% Al2O3. Improved results were also observed for kerosene plus frother mixtures after flotation cleaning circuits. The bubbles formed during flotation were photographed and the bubble diameters were measured using the ImageJ program. The Al2O3 content was evaluated by correlating the bubble diameters. In general, selectivity decreased during experiments in which bubble diameters were reduced.

Biofuel powered engine characteristics improvement through split injection parameter multivariate optimization with titanium based nano-particle additives

A combined approach of injection parameter optimization using multivariate analysis along with titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles as a fuel additive for pine oil is presented in this work. The novelty of the study lies in the strategic technique for the calibration of split injection parameters with the application of multivariate and interaction analysis between operating parameters. To facilitate this, multivariate effect and response surface methodology (RSM) are employed to reduce engine testing time while calibrating the engine under a full pedal position at 20% pine oil biofuel (POB)-diesel blend. Compared to diesel, improved pine oil combustion resulted in 34.3%, 39%, and 58% reduction of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and smoke respectively. These emissions are affected by air–fuel homogeneity controlled by the interaction of engine load (EL), dwell time (DT) and pilot mass (PM). Furthermore, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions are reduced by 21.4% on the fine-tuning PM parameter for POB. From the study, it is found that the lower calorific value of POB causes thermal efficiencies and fuel consumption to deteriorate even after the injection parameter optimization. Hence, to improve the performance output, titanium nanoparticles are used as an additive and blended with POB under two different concentrations of 50 and 100 ppm through the nano-emulsion technique. For optimized injection parameters, the nanoparticles are added with POB-diesel blends exhibits better efficiency and fuel consumption. This is due to the catalytic effect of titanium nanoparticles along with a micro explosion of water molecules in the pine oil with the nanoparticle.

Do surfactants influence the growth of Rhizophora mangle during restoration of contaminated soil with emulsified oil?

Mangrove forests are ecosystems subject to contamination by oil spills. The objective of this study was to evaluate the development of Rhizophora mangle plants in soil contaminated with oil emulsified with surfactants. These ecosystems have diverse and economically valuable ecological functions. Mangrove soil and propagules were collected in southeastern Mexico. The propagules were sown under greenhouse conditions and the plants were grown for 3 months. Two bioassays were applied: (1) the soil was contaminated by oil emulsified with a biosurfactant synthesized by Azospirillum lipoferum, and (2) the soil was contaminated with oil emulsified with a surfactant based on pine essential oil. Emulsified oil was applied to the substrate in containers with 3‐month‐old plants until several concentrations were reached (0, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and 70,000 ppm). Subsequently, 5 plants for each treatment were randomly extracted every 30 days for 12 months, and the stem length and diameter, root length, leaf area, and fresh and dry weights of the plants were evaluated. Plant development was evaluated through an analysis of variance and a test of means. At the end of the bioassay, the treatments with oil emulsified with pine oil yielded no surviving plants, whereas the treatments with oil emulsified with the biosurfactant yielded a 100% survival rate. Treatment with 30,000 ppm of oil emulsified with the biosurfactant yielded the greatest increases in the leaf area and total dry biomass. The heavy oil fraction concentration decreased by 93.9% with the 30,000 ppm treatment and by 82.64% with the 70,000 ppm treatment.

The Effect of Pine Oil Emulsifier on Gasoline-Alcohol Blends in a Spark Ignition Engine with Multi-Point Fuel Injection

This paper presents the results of a study conducted to establish the effect of pine oil as an emulsifier on gasoline-alcohol blends in a twin cylinder spark ignition (SI) engine with multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) system. The test fuels were prepared by blending both ethanol and isopropanol with gasoline separately and pine oil was used as an emulsifier to either of the fuel blends. The 3 sets of fuel samples were used in which the concentration of pine oil was kept constant at 20 % by volume, while the concentration of both alcohols namely ethanol and isopropanol was varied from 5 to 15 % and the rest is gasoline. The experiments were conducted at different loads from 0 to 100 % in steps of 20 % at a constant speed of 2500 rpm. The results demonstrate that the use of gasoline-alcohol blends with pine oil in MPFI SI engine improved brake thermal efficiency (BTE) by 7.8 and 11.2 % with the higher proportions of ethanol and isopropanol in gasoline, i.e., E15 and IPA15, respectively when compared to neat gasoline. Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions reduce by 22.5 and 27.5 %, respectively while HC emissions reduce by 21.5 and 28.8 %, respectively with the E15 and IPA15, respectively. However, higher amounts of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions is the negative impact of the said blends. It was also observed that there is a reduction in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC).

Probing the stereochemical structure of carenes using Raman and Raman optical activity spectroscopy

The great interest in terpene compounds such as 2-, 3- and 4-carene is due to their undeniable biological activity. However, in recent years, there has been increasing interest in carenes in the context of biofuels. The current growing and insatiable demand for petroleum fuels creates an area for alternative biofuels. Research shows that natural products, which contain compounds from the carenes family, such as pine oil or turpentine (3-carene can constitute up to 70% of the composition of turpentine), can be successfully used as biofuels or additives in biofuels.In this work, both experimental and calculated (DFT/B3LYP/aug-cc-pVDZ) Raman and ROA (Raman optical activity) spectra of 1S,3R-cis-4-carene and 1S,3S-trans-4-carene were reported and analyzed for the first time. Then these spectra were compared with Raman and ROA spectra of other chiral members of the carenes family (1S-2-carene and 1S-3-carene). This knowledge about the spectra of individual carenes made it possible to identify (+)-1S-3-carene in selected samples of pine essential oil from the needles of Pinius sylvestris (Scots pine).

Antimicrobial and Anti-Colorectal Cancer Activities of Some Volatile Oils

Volatile oils are natural compounds that can be adopted in many drug and cosmetic formulations. Many volatile oils can be extracted from natural plants and they have their own special biological activities. Nine volatile oils including pine oil (P), guava leaf oil (G), lime peel oil (L), cinnamon bark oil (C), sage oil (S), tea tree oil (T) rosemary oil (R), clove oil (CL) and jasmine sambac oil (J) were in vitro tested for anti-microbial activities against various microbes and cytotoxicity properties agianst HCT116 and HT29 cell lines. From our result, for antimicrobial activities, the most effective oil against Gram positive such as Staphylococcus aureus are T, R and L. Only P showed the great inhibition on Gram negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli. C, P, L, T and R also exhibited different inhibitory effects on the pathogenic yeasts depending on the candida species. For the antitumoral activity on colorectal cancer cell lines, C showed the most cytotoxicity on both HCT116 and HT29 cells with IC50 value of 7.7 and 74.0 μg/ml, respectively. The second most cytotoxic was guava oil with the IC50 of 101.2 and 97.91 μg/ml on HCT116 and HT29, respectively. These investigated data may be useful as information for oil selection and development of pharmaceutical dosage forms using these natural volatile oils as the ingredients.

Increasing the the efficiency of the collective action of amines by the use of foaming agents combination

A research on the process of enrichment of potash ore using a collective mixture based on higher aliphatic amines, pine oil, and polyethylene glycol (PEG-400) has been carried out. Comparative flotation studies using pine oil and PEG-400 have shown the effectiveness of combined use of these reagents. The effect of adding foaming agents on the micellar structure of amine solutions and the adsorption of amine on the surface of potassium chloride was proved by colloidalchemical methods. It was shown that the introduction of a combination of pine oil and PEG-400 makes it possible to extract 90.3% of potassium chloride into a concentrate at content 87.0 % of potassium chloride. Recovery rates when using a combination of foaming agents are higher than those for adding only one of the foaming agents to the collective mixture. Thus, the best performance was achieved by using a combination of foaming agents. The optimal consumption in laboratory conditions for pine oil and PEG-400 was 10 g/t of ore.

Evaluation of novel microemulsion-based (O/W) drilling fluid with nonionic surfactant and shale interaction mechanisms

The increasing production of hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs, particularly water-sensitive formations, has led to the emergence of technologies necessary to maintain wellbore stability. The drilling fluid must always be adequate to the needs presented by such formations since serious problems may be generated due to inadequate drilling fluid planning. Microemulsions appear in this scenario with advantages over the traditional fluids already used by the industry due to their thermodynamic stability, ease of preparation, and is environmentally acceptable. This work aimed to evaluate the inhibition capacity of microemulsion-based drilling fluids comprised of nonionic surfactants and pine oil, environmentally friendly components, and never before assessed in the laboratory. Initially, a shale sample from a sedimentary basin in Northeastern Brazil was characterized using XRF, XRD, TGA, and DTA. The microemulsions, base of the drilling fluids, were formulated from a ternary phase diagram, in which a water/glycerol solution (1:1 by mass) was used as the aqueous phase, pine vegetable oil as the oil phase, and two nonionic surfactants, Ultranex NP100 and Alkest Tween 80 were used separately in the formulated systems. Potassium citrate (INIB1) and potassium sulfate (INIB2) were also used to inhibit the swelling of reactive formations. In order to evaluate the behavior of drilling fluids, rheology tests, filtrate loss, filtercake thickness, and permeability were considered. Finally, drilling fluid systems were tested for shale inhibition and dispersion capability. In addition to systems composed of INIB1 and INIB2, potassium chloride (KCl) (INIB3) was evaluated, and a system without a swelling inhibitor (SI). It was observed that the shale samples presented clay minerals from the smectite group, which represent a more significant interaction with water for swelling of hydratable formations. Drilling fluids showed rheological behavior following the Herschel-Bulkley model. There is a variability of interactions in the fluids concerning the concentrations of surfactant, oil phase, and swelling inhibitor, with more significant responses associated with increased surfactant concentration in the microemulsion. The drilling fluids showed a significant swelling inhibition, especially the fluid formulated from the surfactant Ultranex NP100 and INIB2, with a 6.9% swelling variation. Excellent results concerning dispersibility were also achieved, with the NP100_INIB1 fluid being the lowest dispersion of cuttings (0.075% and 0.215%). In general, the microemulsion-based drilling fluids efficiently inhibited swelling of the shale sample, showing good rheological and filtration behavior.

Effect of intake port design modifications on diesel engine characteristics fuelled by pine oil-diesel blends

ABSTRACT The effect of the modified intake port with various inclined nozzle angles such as 30°, 60°, and 90° on the diesel engine characteristics when operated with pine oil-diesel blends is investigated. Prior to the engine experimental study, a computational analysis was performed to investigate the impact produced on the flow field parameters of an engine due to modified intake port design. The numerical study revealed increased swirl velocity and turbulence for intake port with a 60° single-pass configuration compared to other design configurations. With evidence of improved swirl velocity and the proposed modified intake port design from the numerical study, an experimental investigation was performed using pine oil blends in the diesel engine with modified intake port configurations. The preliminary engine test findings with standard intake port design indicated that P50 (50% pine oil + 50% diesel) has higher peak engine cylinder pressure and heat release rates than P10 (10% pine oil + 90% diesel). Additionally, the 60° single-pass configuration showed further increase in peak pressure and peak heat release followed by standard and other intake port design configurations. At high load, the P50 blend showed a 12.3% increase in BTE for 60° intake port design configuration in comparison to the standard design configuration. While for the same blend, the engine out emissions like hydrocarbon (HC) and smoke were reduced by about 6.6% and 17.6%, respectively, and nitrogen oxide (NOX) emission was increased by 29% for the 60° single-pass configuration when compared to the standard design configuration. Overall, the intended intake port design modification strategy increased the swirl velocity and turbulence, which improved the air/fuel mixing and combustion. This study identifies 60° single-pass configuration as an optimum design on account of the aforementioned improved engine combustion, performance, and emissions.

Impact of Essential Oil Based Nasal Spray Sinusol® on Sinonasal-Related Impairment

Sinonasal allergic symptoms are commonly treated with steroidal nasal sprays. In a recent survey sinonasal patients preferred Sinusol® holistic approach for symptom relief. We hypothesized that an essential oil based nasal lavage formulation (menthol, eucalyptol, thymol, camphor, birch oil, pine oil, cinnamon and mint- Sinusol®) would provide relief of sinus and nasal symptomatology.

Development of softgel capsules containing cyclosporine a encapsulated pine essential oil based self-microemulsifying drug delivery system

In this study, a new self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) based on pine essential oil has been designed and successfully developed to load cyclosporine A (CsA), a poorly water-soluble immunosuppressant, for oral CsA softgel manufacturing. SMEDDS were prepared from pine essential oil and Capmul MCM as oily phases, Kolliphor RH 40 as surfactant, polyethylen glycol 400 as co-surfactant/co-solvent and none volatized co-solvent utilizing the pseudo-ternary phase diagrams. CsA SMEDDS loading 9.09% of CsA, dispersed in aqueous environments (water, pH 1.2, 4.5 and 6.8 buffers), presented an average droplet size of about 160 nm with polydispersity index (PdI) below 0.25, and were stable after 6 h of self-emulsification. Cytotoxicity of CsA SMEDDS on LLC-PK1 cells demonstrated that CsA SMEDDS had an IC50 value greater than that of the reference product, suggesting product safety against nephrotoxicity. CsA SMEDDS was filled into oval-5 soft gelatin capsules (softgels) containing 0.5% glycine which could avoid the cross-linking process. Additionally, CsA SMEDDS softgels presented the in vitro release profiles equivalent to that of Sandimmun Neoral® at pH 1.2, 4.5 and 6.8. Therefore, the pine essential oil based SMEDDS was considered to be potential and suitable for developing softgels to enhance the oral bioavailability of CsA.

Pine oil and glycerol ketal as components of B10 fuel blends

The main exploitation fuel properties of the B10 blends in the presence (or absence) of glycerol ketal and pine oil additivities have been examined and studied by the ASTM standards. Methanol (or ethanol) biodiesel has been obtained by the transesterification reaction of sunflower oil in the presence of potassium hydroxide. The conversion is 91 and 96% using 1:3 molar ratio of oil to alcohols at 65 and 75°C respectively. The results obtained are demonstrated that the investigated B10 fuel blends with oxygenated compounds have greater potential for diesel engines than, B100 and fossil diesel. The oxidation properties of B10 fuel blends are estimated using NMR spectroscopy. İn the presented workit can be concluded that glycerol ketal and pine oil can be successfully used in diesel fuels as antioxidant additivity.

Non-target effects of aqueous leaf extracts of mugwort (<em>Artemisia vulgaris</em>) and herbicides: Impact on nursery tea plants (<em>Camellia sinensis</em>)

The weed control potential of Artemisia vulgaris in tea lands has been reported. This study evaluated the non-target effects of the aqueous leaf extracts of A. vulgaris at 25, 50, 75 and 100 g/L (soilapplied, 40 ml/pot) on the growth of 7-months-old nursery tea plants (TRI 4006 and 4046) grown in black polythene bags with 1 kg topsoil. For comparison, commercial herbicides with different modes of action, i.e. Glyphosate, Diuron, MCPA, Pelargonic acid, Pine oil and Glufosinate ammonium, were soil-applied at recommended dosages, with distilled water as the control. Experiments were done in CRD with five replicates, with one plant/replicate. Leaf greenness (SPAD meter) at 20 days after treatment (DAT), visual observations of root growth, and shoot and root dry weights/plant were measured with destructive sampling at 30 DAT. Artemisia leaf extracts did not show significant negative impacts on the aboveground parameters of the tea plant compared to the control. The highest phytotoxicity on nursery tea plants was observed with MCPA (root cell damage; 100% plant mortality). The SPAD readings showed significant leaf chlorosis in TRI 4006 and TRI 4046 with Diuron and Glufosinate ammonium, compared to the control, Artemisia extracts, Pelargonic acid and Pine oil. Poor root growth with lesions was observed with 100 g/L Artemisia leaf extract but at a comparatively low degree to that of herbicides. As the non-target effects of A. vulgaris on tea plants were relatively lower, further studies are warranted to determine an effective dosage for weed control with minimum impact on tea plants and the environment.

Modification of Manufacturing Carbol with Lemongrass as a Disinfectant

Carbolic acid is a cleaning fluid or disinfectant that can be used to clean various surfaces, especially floors. Carbolic acid is used to prevent germs and viruses from growing so as to prevent disease and its spread. Most housewives often use chemical-based floor cleaners that are ready-made or more practical. Long-term and too frequent use can be harmful to the body and the environment. Therefore, one solution to minimize this is to use natural ingredients that are already available and developed in Lubuklinggau City, such as lemongrass to be used as carbolic acid. The preparation begins by dissolving the arpus into the NaOH solution until it dissolves, then adding a mixture of pine oil, teepol and propylene glycol until everything is homogeneously mixed. Carbol is ready to use. The resulting product is carbolic floor disinfectant. The results showed that the greater the content of lemongrass essential oil, the greater the inhibition zone, meaning that the greater the amount of lemongrass essential oil added, the Carbol solution would be better for cleaning or killing bacteria, and the better the disinfectant properties.

Chemical Composition of Fir, Pine and Thyme Essential Oils and Their Effect on Onion (Allium cepa L.) Seed Quality

Botrytis allii and B. cinerea are important seed-transmitted pathogens of onion. The aim of this study was to determine the chemical compositions of fir, pine and thyme essential oils and evaluate their effects on the germination, vigour and health of onion seeds. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy was used for the analysis of the oils’ chemical compositions. Seed germination, vigour and health tests were performed on untreated seeds and on seeds treated with volatile compounds of the oils applied at a concentration of 0.2 µL cm−3 for 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h or at a concentration of 0.4 µL cm−3 for 3, 6 and 12 h. The main components of fir oil were bornyl acetate (55.5%) and α-pinene (15.6%), pine oil contained mostly α-pinene (35.5%) and β-pinene (18.6%), and thymol (34.2%) and p-cymene (26.2%) prevailed in thyme oil. Almost all treatments significantly reduced seed infestation with Alternaria alternata and Fusarium spp., and some effectively controlled Botrytis spp., however, seed health improvement was usually associated with deterioration of seed germination and vigour. Only treatment with fir oil at a concentration of 0.2 µL cm−3 for 6 h effectively controlled seed-borne pathogens and positively affected seed germination. Considering the beneficial effect of the oils on seed health, further studies are necessary in order to establish the optimal conditions for onion seed treatment.

Formulation and Study of an Environmentally Friendly Microemulsion-Based Drilling Fluid (O/W) with Pine Oil

This work has developed and evaluated a microemulsion-based drilling fluid formulation with characteristics to be applied in oil wells. The microemulsion was formulated with a solution of water/glycerol, pine oil, and Tween 80, a nonionic and biodegradable surfactant. The physical and chemical properties of the drilling fluid obtained in this work were investigated through rheology and filtration analysis, solids content, aging, lubricity, toxicity, and thermal degradation. A non-toxic microemulsion-based drilling fluid oil-in-water (O/W) with high lubricity (0.07638) and thermal stability was obtained with suitable viscosity, gel strength and low fluid loss (4.0 mL), low solids content (6%), stability in a wide range of salinity conditions, and the possibility of high water content (above 85% in mass fraction). The fluid presented a pseudoplastic behavior, and statistically significant Herschel–Bulkley parameters were obtained.

Plant Tannins and Essential Oils Have an Additive Deterrent Effect on Diet Choice by Kangaroos

Tannins and essential oils are well recognised as antiherbivore compounds. We investigated the relative effectiveness of the polyphenol, tannin, and the essential oils, 1,8-cineole and pine oil, as feeding deterrents against western grey kangaroos. Both groups of secondary metabolites are naturally abundant in many Australian plants. These three metabolite groups were incorporated separately or together into standard pellets for presentation to kangaroos, and their behaviour (sequence of food choice and feeding time) and amounts consumed were observed. The control (with no secondary metabolites) was much preferred. There was a sharp reduction in the ingestion of pellets containing tannins, 1,8-cineole or pine oil. Combinations of the metabolites resulted in almost no consumption. In association with tannin, pellets containing either 1,8-cineole or pine oil were as effective deterrents as both combined. There was a strong correlation between time spent feeding on the different diets and the amount of food consumed, although the rate of intake was markedly slower when secondary metabolites were present. Behavioural observations showed that the amount of food ingested is initially guided by the presence/absence of essential oils, apparently detected by smell, and later by the presence/absence of tannins, by taste. Both groups of secondary metabolites work in concert by stimulating different senses that minimise herbivory by marsupials, such as the western grey kangaroo, and help to explain their abundance in the Australian flora.

Study of combustion, performance and emissions characteristics of oxygenated constituents and methanol fumigation in the inlet manifold of a diesel engine

To understand the aspect of methanol fumigation on diesel engine characterization, various percentages of methanol were injected from the inlet manifold, while the blend of Pine and Eucalyptus oil in diesel(P10E10D80) was injected from the main injector and used as a new source of biofuel. The cetane number and viscosity of the oil blend were found to have lower values than fossil diesel. The study envisages vaporization of oil blend and its induction into the diesel engine while P10E10D80 was used for the facilitation of ignition to the methanol-air mixture. The Sauter Mean Diameter of P10E10D80 was found to be lower than conventional diesel and thus was supposed to be more suitable for the evaporation of methanol and hence, by methanol fumigation studies. The study revealed that at 20% to 100% load, the use of methanol could replace 39% to 56% of P10E10D80, respectively, and subsequently improve the Brake Specific Energy Consumption(BSEC ;17%), brake thermal efficiency (BTE; 2.56%), Exhaust Gas Temperature(EGT;8.92%), Carbon Monoxide (CO;42%), Oxide of Nitrogen(NOx ;3.57%), Besides, the combustion of fumigated methanol was found to exhibiting 11.54% higher in-cylinder pressure and higher Heat Release Rate (HRR;22%) 39% at full load.

OBSERVATIONS ON BIODIESEL USAGE TRENDS IN EUROPEAN UNION

Vegetable oils, used cooking oils (UCO), pine, tallow and animal oils were the main feedstocks to produce biodiesel in EU in 2011-2020. Rapeseed, palm oil, soya and sunflower were the four vegetable oils feedstocks and contributed to 67- 87 per cent of the total biodiesel usage. Although the amounts of biodiesel usage increased over time, the share of biodiesel from these four feedstocks relative to the total amount, decreased from 87 per cent in 2012 to 78 per cent in 2020. This loss was filled up by, principally, UCO, tallows, animal waste oils and greases; their amounts used increased by 2.5 times over the period. They will continue to be used in larger quantities in 2021-2030 and will cause the share of palm, soya and sunflower oils as biofuel feedstocks to decrease. It is anticipated that vegetable oils will still be needed as biofuel feedstock in 2021-2030. With a significantly large share of 78 per cent of the total amount of biodiesel used in 2020, it will take some time before they can be replaced completely by UCO, tallows/animal waste oils and second to third generation biofuels. The call to determine the sustainability status of UCO more thoroughly in the future will also be expected to put some brakes on the accelerated use of UCO to replace these crop-based feedstocks. The price of feedstock was of secondary importance when choosing the feedstock in 2012-2020. Rapeseed oil was the most expensive vegetable feedstock and yet it was the main feedstock used. This showed that other factors e.g., feedstock sustainability status as stipulated in the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and local availability were also important; the European Union (EU)being the world’s largest rapeseed oil producer. Besides, RED also stressed the importance of energy security and to provide jobs and economic development of the local people when executing the RE programme. As such, it is foreseen that rapeseed oil will remain the dominant feedstock. However, vegetable oils have competing uses for food, feed, oleochemicals and biofuels. The ability to use rapeseed as the primary feedstock in huge amounts indefinitely has limitations. As a resource, rapeseed ranked third in quantity produced globally. Palm oil, followed by soya had the largest amounts of resource available for use in the world. Sunflower had the lowest resource availability among the four vegetable oils. As such, overstretching the use of rapeseed and sunflower for biofuel can have other dire consequences such as supply shortages and price increases. Rapeseed alone cannot meet the total demand of EU’s biodiesel needs. The study showed that even if the entire production of rapeseed oil from locally grown crop in EU was used for biodiesel production, it could only meet 58 per cent of its biodiesel demand in 2020. Since rapeseed feedstock cannot meet the total demand of biodiesel in EU, it is anticipated that in 2021-2030, it will have to be supplemented with other feedstocks particularly palm and soya oils. Under the Delegated Regulation, palm oil is classified as an unsustainable biofuel feedstock with high ILUC-risk. Incidentally, it is the only feedstock classified as such. It is, thus, envisaged that soya will be used in larger and larger amounts at the expense of palm oil. Under the Delegated Regulation the use of palm oil will be restricted starting in 2020 and continue until its use is phased out completely by 2030 at the latest. However, the tide may still change in favour of palm oil if its trade discrimination by EU can be stopped by World Trade Organisation where a trade dispute is ongoing currently. Keywords: Biodiesel, crop-based biofuels, vegetable oils, used cooking oil, resource availability, palm oil, rapeseed.

Testing of Pine Oil and Glycerol Ketal as Components of B10 Fuel Blend

The aim of the present work was to the preparation of biodiesel from sunflower oil and ethanol by the transesterification reaction in the presence of the KOH. The conversion was 88% at using a 1:3 molar ratio of oil to alcohol at 75°C. Important fuel physical properties of B10 blend with (or without) oxygenated additivities by the ASTM standards had been investigated. Based on the obtained results is noted that the fuel blend B10 with (or without) additivities has greater potentials for diesel engines than, B100 and fossil diesel.