Pig Value Chain Research Articles

Semiquantitative Risk Evaluation Reveals Drivers of African Swine Fever Virus Transmission in Smallholder Pig Farms and Gaps in Biosecurity, Tanzania.

African swine fever (ASF) has remained persistent in Tanzania since the early 2000s. Between 2020 and 2021, pig farms in twelve districts in Tanzania were infected with ASF, and ≥4,804 pigs reportedly died directly due to the disease with disruption to livelihoods. We conducted semiquantitative field investigations and rapid risk assessment (RRA) to understand the risk factors and drivers of ASF virus (ASFV) amplification and transmission in smallholder pig farms, and determine the gaps in biosecurity through hazard profiling, focus group discussions and expert opinion. Outbreaks were connected by road and aligned along the pig product value chain and reported in the northern, central, and southern parts of Tanzania. The patterns of outbreaks and impacts differed among districts, but cases of ASF appeared to be self-limiting following significant mortality of pigs in farms. Movement of infected pigs, movement of contaminated pig products, and fomites associated with service providers, vehicles, and equipment, as well as the inadvertent risks associated with movements of animal health practitioners, visitors, and scavengers were the riskiest pathways to introduce ASFV into smallholder pig farms. Identified drivers and facilitators of risk of ASFV infection in smallholder pig farms were traders in whole pigs, middlemen, pig farmers, transporters, unauthorized animal health service providers, and traders in pork. All identified pig groups were susceptible to ASFV, particularly shared adult boars, pregnant and lactating sows, and other adult females. The risk of ASF for smallholder pig farms in Tanzania remains very high based on a systematic risk classification. The majority of the farms had poor biosecurity and no single farm implemented all identified biosecurity measures. Risky practices and breaches of biosecurity in the pig value chain in Tanzania are profit driven and are extremely difficult to change. Behavioural change communication must target identified drivers of infections, attitudes, and practices.

Pig farming profitability and constraints in smallholder households in Rwanda: a case study of Musanze district.

The increasing human population risks food insecurity especially food of animal origin. Pig plays an important role in household income in all production. The main aim of this study was to analyze the pig farming profitability and constraints in smallholder households in Rwanda. A multistage sampling technique was employed for the success of the research. The study was carried out in five sectors of Musnze district. A purposive sampling technique was used to select Musanze district and five sectors. However, a random sampling method was used to have a sample size of 120 pig farmers’ respondents. The cost and returns associated with pig farming production were carried out to determine the profitability of pig production while a stochastic frontier production function was used to determine factors influencing pig farming in small householders using STATA. The findings indicated that men are the majority of the respondents in pig farming production in the study area. The findings of the regression analysis indicated that five factors namely education level, market availability, off-farm generation, feed availability, and access to veterinary services were positive, and statistically significant at P ≤ 0.01 level of probability and influenced pig farming in the study area. The findings also indicated that the Total Revenue (TR), Total Cost (TC), Gross Margin (GM), and Net Farm Income (NFI) were statistically significant at (p < 0.01). The research findings indicated that pig farming is a profitable business in the study area. The result of regression analysis also indicated that the three factors namely income generation, employment opportunities, and new job creation had positive and statistically significant impacts on pig farming in the study area at P ≤ 0.01 level of probability. The findings of this study revealed that the most common constraints for pig farming in smallholder households were the high cost of feeds, inadequate initial capital, feeds sacristy and quality, lack of conservation facilities, pests, and diseases outbreaks, high cost of piglets, lack of farming information, and poor housing. Despite the constraints indicated by different respondents in the study area. Pig farming is an economically profitable business in the study area and it is capable of creating new jobs, enhancing employment opportunities, generating income, and clearly improving the standard livelihood of farmers. Based on the findings of the study, it has been recommended to promote interventions that can help provide initial start-up capital for farmers or marketing groups to help kick-start their farming operations; and to train and equip pig farmers and veterinaries in new technologies and innovations. Promote the analysis of profitability, opportunities, and constraints along the pig value chain as well as to support and improve the underlying business progress or stunting well as to make a good decision.

Actions and perceived impact of African swine fever control measures along the smallholder pig value chain in Uganda

Pig production in Uganda is constrained by African swine fever (ASF) which is endemic in the country. Current measures taken by the Government of Uganda in controlling ASF outbreaks include trade and livestock movement restrictions, called “quarantine.” Little is known about the actions of, and impact of value chain actors in response to ASF quarantines. This study describes actions that different stakeholders in the smallholder pig value chain took, and the perceived economic impact, during ASF quarantines. Data was collected in ten focus group discussions (FGD) using participatory epidemiology tools and two key informants’ (KIs) interviews with District Veterinary Officers (DVOs) of Kisoro and Moyo districts in Uganda. The results show that during ASF quarantine, pig value chain actors shifted their activities from formal places such as livestock markets, slaughter slabs, pork butcheries and pork joints to informal places such as farmers’ homesteads. Farmers were perceived the most economically affected stakeholder group with forgone income due to unsold pigs, costs for implementing biosecurity measures and extra costs for feeding unsold pigs being the major perceived causes of the losses. The continued trade in pigs and pig products in informal marketplaces suggests that quarantine might not be effective for hindering activities that might spread ASF in these settings. The perceived economic losses provide an insight into the negative economic impact of the quarantine for the different stakeholders.

Profitability, market outlets and constraints to Ghana's pig production

Access to profitable marketing outlets by small-scale pig producers is a major concern in Ghana. This study uncovered the market outlets available to small-scale pig farmers and examined the profitability of these outlets, the factors influencing their choice of these outlets as well as constraints to the marketing of small-scale pig farming in Ghana. It used data collected from 398 small-scale pig farmers in selected districts of six regions in Ghana. Descriptive statistics, income statement and multivariate probit model were used in analyzing the data. The results indicate that small-scale pig farmers in Ghana utilize existing market outlets such as direct sales to consumers, retailers, commission agents and sales through farmer associations. The return on investment implies that small-scale pig production is a profitable venture with sales through farmer associations being the most profitable outlet. We therefore conclude that pig farming, although profitable across all outlets, is most profitable when channeled through farmer associations, with an impressive return on investment of 71.54%. The results of the multivariate probit analyses also revealed that the choice of marketing channel for pig farmers is influenced by price per kg of pigs sold, feed cost, gender, herd size, educational level, association membership, land ownership, credit accessibility, availability of storage facilities and access to market information. Finally, the analysis of marketing constraints revealed that price instability, market instability, and access to market information are the most pressing constraints to pig production in Ghana. The findings suggest that small-scale pig farmers can boost their incomes by developing direct sales through farmer associations to help increase their bargaining power and reap more benefits in the pig value chain. Also, the study recommends that addressing key constraints like price instability by providing access to real-time market information through digital platforms could modernize the small-scale pig farming sector in Ghana.

Competencies and Capabilities for the Management of Sustainable Rural Development Projects in the Value Chain: Perception from Small and Medium-Sized Business Agents in Jauja, Peru

The guinea pig value chain in Jauja, Peru, has been developed through the application of productive projects, institutional strengthening, and implementation of the Principles of Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems (CFS-RAI). Given the smallholding conditions of the Jauja territory and the proliferation of commercial guinea pig breeding, the actors in this chain constitute a key human capital for development. To improve the performance of the actors in the sustainable rural development of the territory of Jauja, Peru, the research carried out an evaluation of the competencies and capabilities for project management in 46 actors linked to the business programme on the CFS-RAI Principles, representing 1094 people in the guinea pig value chain in Jauja, using the Working With People (WWP) model and empirical instruments based on the Octagon method, project management competence evaluation, performance evaluation carried out by experts, attitudinal evaluation. and the Business Model Canvas. The results have helped to structure the actors of the value chain, who show an intermediate mastery of project management competencies (2.73/5), institutional capabilities in development (2.89/7), and a growing organisational management performance (26.2/100). In addition, trust and proactivity have been generated among the actors in the chain, with an interest in continuing with the implementation of the CFS-RAI Principles in order to achieve sustainability in their productive projects with commercial innovation. The results have allowed us to generate the design of an innovative programme for the development of competencies, which balances the three dimensions of project management competencies (perspective, people, and practice), as defined by the International Project Management Association (IPMA), in connection with the CFS-RAI Principles. Both processes complement the strengthening of human capital in agrifood value chains through sustainable project management and contributing to sustainable development in the region.

A survey of biosecurity practices of pig farmers in selected districts affected by African swine fever in Uganda.

In Uganda, pig production is an important source of livelihood for many people and contributes to food security. African swine fever (ASF) is a major constraint to pig production in Uganda, threatening the food supply and sustainable livelihoods. Prevention of ASF primarily relies on good biosecurity practices along the pig value chain. Previous studies showed that biosecurity along the pig value chain and on farms in Uganda is poor. However, the biosecurity practices of pig farmers in ASF affected areas of Uganda and their opinions on on-farm ASF morbidity and mortality were previously not comprehensively characterized. The objectives of this study were to document pig farmers' experiences with ASF in their farms and to describe the pig biosecurity practices in districts of Uganda that were highly affected by ASF. A total of 99 farmers were interviewed in five districts. Data were collected by way of triangulation through farmer interviews, field observations during the farmer interviews, and a survey of key informants. However, farmer interviews were considered the primary source of data for this study. Farmers' biosecurity practices were scored using a biosecurity scoring algorithm. Forty-one out of 96 (42.7%) farmers reported having pigs with ASF in the past 12 months. The level of pig farming experience (p = 0.0083) and herd size (p < 0.0001) were significantly associated with the reported occurrence of ASF. Overall, the biosecurity scores for the respondents were considered poor with 99% (98/99) scoring <70% and just one farmer obtaining a fair score of 72.2%. District (p = 0.0481), type of husbandry system (p = 0.014), and type of pig breed raised (p = 0.004) were significantly associated with farmer's biosecurity score. Continued farmer education on ASF and the importance of good biosecurity practices is necessary. More in-depth scientific inquiry into the factors influencing the biosecurity practices among pig farmers in Uganda is necessary.

Structure of the pork value chain in Northern Uganda: implications for Taenia solium control interventions.

This study characterizes the pork value chain in Agago, Kitgum, Lamwo, and Pader districts of Northern Uganda and analyzes its implications on the transmission and control of Taenia solium infections. Data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) with farmers and pig and pork traders, key informant interviews (KIIs) with local government officials and consumers, and district-level multi-stakeholder mini workshops organized in the study area. The value chain actors identified include input and services providers, pig farmers, live pig traders, pork traders, and consumers. Most of the pig production, marketing and consumption was found to occur through informal channels. Pig production in this area is dominated by smallholder extensive systems, with most producers keeping less than 10 pigs. The production segment of the pig value chain is characterized by low use of inputs and services such as veterinary extension, drugs and improved feeds. Pigs scavenge for food under free-range systems and are at risk of parasitic infections such as the zoonotic helminth Taenia solium. This risk is exacerbated by the inherent contextual aspects of the study sites including low latrine coverage, open defecation, and high poverty. In addition, some respondents viewed pigs as "sanitation policemen" where they leave them to roam around and eat dirt including feaces thereby cleaning the environment. T. solium was recognized as an important pig health constraint in this value chain alongside African swine fever (ASF). Unlike ASF that was associated with the pig mortalities, the cysts were associated with rejection of pigs by traders at purchase, condemnation of pig carcasses by meat inspectors and rejection of raw pork by consumers at points of sale. Poor organization of the value chain and lack veterinary extension and meat inspection services results in some pigs infected with T. solium entering the food chain, exposing consumers to infection with the parasite. To reduce the pig production losses and public health impact from T. solium infections, there is need for control and prevention interventions targeting specific nodes of the value chain where the risk of transmission is highest.

Co-created community contracts support biosecurity changes in a region where African swine fever is endemic - Part II: Implementation of biosecurity measures.

Smallholder subsistence pig production is common in Uganda and African swine fever (ASF) is endemic in the country, with its spread driven by human activities along the smallholder value chain. Previous research in the study area has revealed that many stakeholders are aware of how ASF is spread, its prevention and control, and have a generally positive attitude towards biosecurity. Despite this, even basic biosecurity is largely lacking. Costs, as well as a lack of adaptation to the local context, culture and traditions have been identified as factors hindering biosecurity implementation. Community engagement and local ownership of disease problems are increasingly recognised as important for improving disease prevention and control. The objective of this study was to investigate the capacity of participatory action at community level with broad inclusion of stakeholders to improve biosecurity in the smallholder pig value chain. Specific attention was paid to participants' perceptions and experiences of implementing the biosecurity measures included in their co-created community contracts. The study was conducted in Northern Uganda in villages purposively selected on the basis of previous occurrences of ASF. In each village, farmers and traders were also purposively selected. At a first meeting, basic information about ASF was shared and participants presented with a list of biosecurity measures adapted for farmers and traders respectively. Participants discussed each measure in farmer and trader subgroups, decided on the measures to implement for one year, and signed a community contract to this effect. The following year, interviews were again undertaken and implementation support given. Interview data were coded and thematically analysed. Each subgroup chose a minimum of three and a maximum of nine measures, with wide variations between villages in their selection of measures. At the follow-ups, none of the subgroups had fully implemented what had been agreed in their contract, but all had changed some of their biosecurity routines. Some frequently recommended biosecurity measures, such as not borrowing breeding boars, were not considered feasible. Relatively simple and cheap biosecurity measures were rejected for reasons of cost, highlighting the participants' general level of poverty and the relevance of poverty as a specific factor governing disease control results. The participatory methodology allowing for discussions, co-creation and the option to refuse measures seemed to facilitate the implementation of measures that had initially been thought to be controversial. The broad community approach was deemed to be positive for strengthening community identity, cooperation and implementation.

Co-created community contracts support biosecurity changes in a region where African swine fever is endemic – Part I: The methodology

In Northern Uganda more people live in poverty than elsewhere in the country. Small-scale pig-keeping is common and African swine fever (ASF) is endemic, spreading along the smallholder value chain. Biosecurity measures remain the only way to prevent and control the spread of ASF in this context. Previous research in the study area has shown that many stakeholders are aware of ASF, how it is spread and methods for prevention and control, but biosecurity implementation remains limited. Participatory approaches have been suggested in order to increase community engagement in relation to animal disease control, ensuring that disease prevention or control actions are guided by local people’s priorities and the promotion of local ownership of disease control. The objective of this study was to investigate the capacity of participatory action at community level with a broad inclusion of stakeholders to initiate change and greater stakeholder ownership to improve biosecurity in the smallholder pig value chain. Specific attention was paid to the feasibility of co-created community contracts for this purpose. The study was carried out in Northern Uganda in six purposively selected villages and included both farmers and traders. Centred on co-created community contracts on biosecurity, the study comprised repeated group discussions, semi-structured and structured group and individual interviews, as well as field observations. At the first meeting, participants were presented with suggested biosecurity measures adapted for farmers and traders respectively. Participants discussed each measure, agreed which ones to implement for one year, and co-created a community contract to this effect. During the study period, repeated interviews were undertaken and implementation support was provided. Interview data was coded and thematically analysed. Great diversity was observed between communities with regard to which and how many measures were selected, illustrating heterogeneity in the possibilities of biosecurity implementation and the complexity of livelihood challenges. The methodology appeared to be effective at instigating change, with all the communities changing some of their biosecurity behaviour during the study period. The intensified communication and cooperation around pigs in the communities reinforced the sense of group identity and the capacity-building offered at the first meeting supported implementation and appeared to be more important than the physical contract. Participants reported feeling empowered and described how they shared their knowledge, educated their peers and acted as catalysts for wider biosecurity change in their communities. These are promising results and indicate a positive attitude to both the agreed measures and the methodology.

Heart girth best predicts live weights of market-age pigs in Tanzania.

The aim of this study was to use linear body measurements to develop and validate a regression-based model for prediction of live weights (LW) of pigs reared under smallholder settings in rural areas in the southern highlands of Tanzania. LW of 400 pigs (range 7 to 91 kg) was measured, along with their heart girths (HG) and body lengths (BL). BL was measured from the midpoint between the ears to the tail base. HG was measured as chest circumference just behind the front legs. LW was determined using a portable hanging scale. An analysis of covariance was performed to test for differences in LW between male and female pigs, including age, HG and BL as covariates. LW was regressed on HG and BL using simple and multiple linear regressions. Models were developed for all pig ages, and separately for market/breeding-age pigs and those below market/breeding age. Model validation was done using a split-samples approach, followed by PRESS-related statistics. Model efficiency and accuracy were assessed using the coefficient of determination, R2, and standard deviation of the random error, respectively. Model stability was determined by assessing 'shrinkage' of R2 value. Results showed that HG was the best predictor of LW in market/breeding-age pigs (model equation: LW = 1.22HG-52.384; R2 = 0.94, error = 3.7). BL, age and sex of pigs did not influence LW estimates. It is expected that LW estimation tools will be developed to enable more accurate estimation of LW in the pig value chain in the area.

Innovative PLF Tool to Assess Growing-Finishing Pigs’ Welfare

The main goal of the AWARTECH project (Animal Welfare Adjusted Real Time Environmental Conditions of Housing) was to develop an innovative precision livestock tool that will support and reinforce the pig value chain, through the management of solutions based on monitoring, analysis and control of environmental, physiological, behaviour and animal performances parameters. Environmental data was collected by sensors of temperature, relative humidity, air velocity and gas concentration, which are integrated in an environmental control system (Webisense) and in a platform (Nidus). Webisense controlled the ventilation system, the cooling system and the heating system. The rectal and body surface temperatures were registered manual and automatically. In order to monitor the behaviour of the animals, video cameras were installed. An individual feeding machine equipped with a scale has been also installed. This equipment allow, through an RFID system, the individual monitoring and control of the amount of food supplied and ingested; the number and duration of visits; and the animal’s weight. The development of the AWARTECH platform resulted from the integration of data provided by Webisense, Nidus, feeding machine and video analytics as well as physiological data. This platform allows the control the environmental conditions based on welfare indicators promoting animal welfare.

Gender-focused analysis and opportunities for upgrading within Vietnam's smallholder pig value chains.

Gender influences participation in food value chains (VCs) with implications for VC upgrading. This study investigated roles as well as differences in production activities, awareness, training, and attitudes between men and women in Vietnam's smallholder pig VCs. Data were gathered from a survey of 1,014 actors in different nodes along the chain, and the results showed that both men and women participated in all nodes of the VCs. Women were mainly in charge of routine husbandry activities (e.g., preparing feed, feeding animals, and cleaning pig pens) and participated in input supply (34.7%), pig production (60.2%), pork processing (63.6%), retailing (93.1%), and home preparation and cooking (100%). Men were more often responsible for tasks requiring strength, knowledge, and skills (e.g., disease management) and had greater involvement in larger-scale farming (60–80%) and slaughtering activities (98.0%). Selling of pigs was handled by both genders, but mainly men (73–80%), especially in larger farms. Likely challenges for upgrading pig VCs include limited training for producers, low concern for occupational health risks in all nodes, and misperceptions about food safety. In general, this study found no clear evidence of perceived gender inequality in the smallholder pig VCs in lowland Vietnam. Gendered upgrading in pig VCs should focus on improving women's ability to access veterinary services and animal disease management and on educating relevant VC actors about occupational health risks.

Exploring the hurdles that remain for control of African swine fever in smallholder farming settings.

To honour the 100 years anniversary of the first publication about African swine fever (ASF) a webinar with a particular focus on disease control in the smallholder sector was organized. This article is based on the webinar, summarizing the early history of ASF research, reflecting on the current global disease situation and bringing forward some suggestions that could contribute towards achieving control of ASF. The first description of ASF by R. Eustace Montgomery in 1921 laid the foundations for what we know about the disease today. Subsequent research confirmed its association with warthogs and soft ticks of the Ornithodoros moubata complex. During the latter half of the 21st century, exponential growth of pig production in Africa has led to a change in the ASF-epidemiology pattern. It is now dominated by a cycle involving domestic pigs and pork with virus spread driven by people. In 2007, a global ASF epidemic started, reaching large parts of Europe, Asia and the Americas. In Europe, this epidemic has primarily affected wild boar. In Asia, wild boar, smallholders and industrialized pig farms have been affected with impact on local, national and international pig value chains. Globally and historically, domestic pigs in smallholder settings are most frequently affected and the main driver of ASF virus transmission. Awaiting a safe and efficacious vaccine, we need to continue focus on other measures, such as biosecurity, for controlling the disease. However, smallholders face specific challenges linked to poverty and other structural factors in implementing biosecurity measures that can prevent spread. Improving biosecurity in the smallholder sector thus remains an important tool for preventing and controlling ASF. In this regard, interdisciplinary research can help to find new ways to promote safe practices, facilitate understanding and embrace smallholders' perspectives, engage stakeholders and adjust prevention and control policies to improve implementation.

Spatiotemporal Analysis and Assessment of Risk Factors in Transmission of African Swine Fever Along the Major Pig Value Chain in Lao Cai Province, Vietnam.

African swine fever (ASF) is a contagious and lethal hemorrhagic disease with a case fatality rate approaching 100% in domestic pigs. The main objectives of this study were to describe the spatiotemporal analysis as well as to assess the potential risk factors along the pig value chain in Lao Cai province, Vietnam. A total of 925 outbreaks were reported from 2019 to 2020. The three clusters (primary, secondary and 5th) were observed near the Chinese border. The most temporal clusters were detected between May and August during the study period. In addition, we evaluated the association between ASF outbreak locations to the nearest main roads and elevation. For ASF outbreak locations to the nearest main roads, compared with the reference (<5,000 m), <1,000 m (10.22 times) and 1,000–2,000 m (1.98 times) were significantly higher occurrences of ASF. For elevation, compared to the reference (>1,500 m), the farm locations with <500 m (55.31 times) showed a significantly increased risk of ASF outbreaks. Farmers perceived that the highest risk of ASF transmission may come from collectors and slaughterers, intermediaries inside and outside the commune, feed agents and maize agents in the commune, and pig retailers. Both commercial and household pig producers considered minimizing the number of people going in and out of pig stables and improving healthcare and husbandry procedures to be both very important and feasible. There is a need for compliance by all pig producers and other actors in the pig value chain to adopt biosecurity practices. Therefore, awareness, knowledge and understanding of infection and risks of ASF need to be improved. Veterinary officials at the provincial and district levels need to improve capacity and resources to perform laboratory analysis for ASF and need to coordinate with local actors on the control and prevention of ASF in the community.

Social embeddedness of pig value chains in Myanmar and its implications for food and nutrition security

Agricultural intermediaries – traders and middlemen/women – play a critical role for food security in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Yet, their role in improving or undermining food safety, an indicator for food quality, is not well understood. As middle-class citizens increasingly demand high-quality perishable and nutritious produce, food safety has become an important issue in LMICs. The existing literature offers limited insights as to whether and, if so, how intermediaries manage information regarding food safety in LMICs. This article fills this gap based on an in-depth qualitative study on pig value chains in Myanmar. We document that intermediaries helped reduce transaction costs of trade by linking farmers to buyers based on an intricate socio-economic relationship. While we find no evidence of intermediaries actively concealing facts about invisible (i.e. microbiological or chemical) nature of pig products, they facilitated selling sick animals. On the other hand, intermediaries withheld information about potential buyers and sellers in order to maintain their role along the value chains. In order to improve food safety in LMICs, policies need to reduce transaction costs of trade as well as access to public health expertise.

One hundred years of African swine fever in Africa: Where have we been, where are we now, where are we going?

One hundred years have passed since the first paper on African swine fever (ASF) was published by Montgomery in 1921. With no vaccine, ineffectiveness of prevention and control measures and lack of common interest in eradicating the disease, ASF has proven to be one of the most devastating diseases because of its significant sanitary and socioeconomic consequences. The rapid spread of the disease on the European and Asian continents and its recent appearance in the Caribbean puts all countries at great risk because of global trade. The incidence of ASF has also increased on the African continent over the last few decades, extending its distribution far beyond the area in which the ancient sylvatic cycle is present with its complex epidemiological transmission pathways involving virus reservoirs in ticks and wild African Suidae. Both in that area and elsewhere, efficient transmission by infected domestic pigs and virus resistance in infected animal products and fomites mean that human driven factors along the pig value chain are the dominant impediments for its prevention, control and eradication. Control efforts in Africa are furthermore hampered by the lack of information about the size and location of the fast-growing pig population, particularly in the dynamic smallholder sector that constitutes up to 90% of pig production in the region. A vaccine that will be both affordable and effective against multiple genotypes of the virus is not a short-term reality. Therefore, a strategy for management of ASF in sub-Saharan Africa is needed to provide a roadmap for the way forward for the continent. This review explores the progression of ASF and our knowledge of it through research over a century in Africa, our current understanding of ASF and what must be done going forward to improve the African situation and contribute to global prevention and control.

Using a Value Chain Approach to Map the Pig Production System in Rwanda, Its Governance, and Sanitary Risks.

Rwanda has a fast growing pig production sector projected to continue expansion, due to rising local and regional demand. We undertook a value chain analysis to establish the flows of pigs and pork in Rwanda and the roles of various actors involved, and to understand governance and sanitary risks in the value chain. Cross-sectional qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with farmers, brokers, butchers, abattoir managers, and veterinarians. Data were collected on pig production methods and inputs, the source and destination of live and slaughtered pigs, value-adding infrastructures (abattoirs and processing factories), the people involved and interactions between them, governance, and challenges. Pig production in Rwanda is dominated by smallholders, mainly as a source of supplementary income and secondarily for manure. Emerging medium-sized and large pig farms were also identified, located mainly around urban areas. Live pig markets are the main mechanism allowing various actors to buy/sell pigs. Brokers have an important role in pig transactions: they are key in setting prices at markets, examining pigs for disease, organising the supply of pigs for abattoirs and for export. Only a few formal pig abattoirs were identified, which mainly supply to pork processing factories based in Kigali and/or export to customers. Local consumers rely on informal slaughtering at farm or bar/restaurant backyards, with irregular veterinary inspection. Formal abattoirs were attended by a veterinary inspector, however a lack of record keeping was noted. Sanitary risks identified were a lack of biosecurity throughout the chain and poor hygiene at slaughter places. Lingual palpation was practised in pig markets to identify cysticercosis infection, however cyst-positive pigs were not destroyed, but were sold for reduced prices in the same market or later informally sold by the owner. There are few veterinarians attending farms, with most services provided by less qualified technicians or self-treatment of pigs by farmers. Overall, this production system is characterised by a high degree of informality at all nodes, combined with the rapid growth trajectory in the sector. These findings provide a basis to plan interventions tailored to vulnerabilities identified in the Rwanda pig value chain.

Prevention and Control of African Swine Fever in the Smallholder Pig Value Chain in Northern Uganda: Thematic Analysis of Stakeholders' Perceptions.

African swine fever (ASF) is endemic in Uganda and considered a major constraint to pig production. In the absence of a vaccine, biosecurity is key for ASF prevention and control. To improve prevention and control on farm and community level there is need for more knowledge on current application of biosecurity practises, and better understanding of how pig value chain actors perceive prevention and control. To achieve this, a qualitative interview study involving focus group discussions (FGD) was conducted with actors from the smallholder pig value chain in northern Uganda. Six villages were purposively selected based on previous outbreaks of ASF, preliminary perceived willingness to control ASF, and the representation of several different value chain actors in the village. Results indicated that biosecurity practises such as basic hygiene routines including safe carcass handling, minimising direct and indirect contacts between pigs or between pigs and people, trade restrictions and sharing of disease information were implemented in some of the villages. Thematic analysis based on grounded theory revealed six categories of data relating to ASF prevention and control. Together these categories form a logical framework including both enablers and hindrances for ASF prevention and control. In summary participants mostly had positive perceptions of ASF biosecurity, describing measures as effective. Participants further possessed knowledge of ASF and its transmission, some of which was in line with known scientific knowledge and some not. Nevertheless, participants were hindered from preventing and controlling ASF due to biosecurity costs and a need to prioritise family livelihood over disease transmission risks, incompatibility of current biosecurity practises with local culture, traditions and social contexts and finally lack of access to veterinarians or, occasionally, low-quality veterinary services. The constraints could be addressed by applying participatory processes in designing biosecurity measures to ensure better adaptation to local cultural and social contexts.

The effectiveness of community-led initiatives in livestock disease control: a case of African swine fever in rural areas of Uganda.

Proper implementation of biosecurity is currently the only control measure of African swine fever (ASF) in the absence of an effective vaccine or drug against the disease. Despite the efforts that Uganda's local and central governments have invested to reduce livestock diseases, ASF outbreaks still persist in the country. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of community-led initiatives in the control of ASF in Mukono District, central Uganda. In Mukono district, a community-led pilot program was initiated where stakeholders in the pig value chain organized themselves into an ASF control task force to enforce on-farm and pig value chain activities intended to limit the spread of ASF. Semi-structured interviews with pig famers (n = 211) were conducted in two areas with contrasting practices: one with active community-initiated and monitored ASF control initiatives since 2016 (Kasawo and Namuganga) and the other without such initiative as the control (Mpunge and Ntenjeru). A significant decline (Wilcoxon ranked sign test: Z = - 5.412, p = 0.000) in the annual frequency of ASF outbreaks in both Kasawo and Namuganga sub-counties was observed after the implementation of community-led initiatives. The level of practice of most ASF control measures was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in sub-counties that instituted community-led ASF control initiatives than in the control sub-counties. The results of this study demonstrate the power of community-led initiatives in reducing ASF disease outbreaks in endemic areas.

Genomic Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Serovars Derby and Rissen From the Pig Value Chain in Vietnam.

Nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) is the most reported cause of bacterial foodborne zoonoses in Vietnam, and contaminated pork is one of the main sources of human infection. In recent years, the prevalence of NTS carrying multiple antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) have been increased. The genomic characterization along the pig value chain and the identification of ARGs and plasmids have the potential to improve food safety by understanding the dissemination of ARGs from the farm to the table. We report an analysis of 13 S. Derby and 10 S. Rissen isolates, collected in 2013 at different stages in Vietnamese slaughterhouses and markets. VITEK 2 Compact System was used to characterize the phenotypical antimicrobial resistance of the isolates. In addition, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was used to detect ARGs and plasmids conferring multidrug resistance. Whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism typing was used to determine the genetic diversity of the strains and the spread of ARGs along the pig value chain. Altogether, 86.9% (20/23) of the samples were resistant to at least one antibiotic. Resistance to ampicillin was most frequently detected (73.9%), followed by piperacillin and moxifloxacin (both 69.6%). At least one ARG was found in all strains, and 69.6% (16/23) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). The observed phenotype and genotype of antimicrobial resistance were not always concordant. Plasmid replicons were found in almost all strains [95.6% (22/23)], and the phylogenetic analysis detected nine clusters (S. Derby, n = 5; S. Rissen, n = 4). ARGs and plasmid content were almost identical within clusters. We found six MDR IncHI1s with identical plasmid sequence type in strains of different genetic clusters at the slaughterhouse and the market. In conclusion, high rates of multidrug resistance were observed in Salmonella strains from Vietnam in 2013. Genomic analysis revealed many resistance genes and plasmids, which have the potential to spread along the pig value chain from the slaughterhouse to the market. This study pointed out that bioinformatics analyses of WGS data are essential to detect, trace back, and control the MDR strains along the pig value chain. Further studies are necessary to assess the more recent MDR Salmonella strains spreading in Vietnam.