Pig Farms Research Articles

Pig Liver Cytosolic Carboxylesterase 1 and Its Inhibition by Remdesivir and Sofosbuvir

AbstractPig carboxylesterases (CESs) are recognized as enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics, and many drugs used in pig breeding that contain ester groups can be hydrolyzed by CESs. However, there are a limited number of publications focused on the molecular weight, inhibitor effects, and enzyme kinetics of porcine cytosolic carboxylesterase. This study presents the first investigation of the presence, kinetics, inhibition, and amino acid sequence of CES1, the major cytosolic CES isozyme in pig liver. The molecular weight of pig liver cytosolic CES1 was estimated to be approximately 179 kDa, and the amino acid sequence of the enzyme subunit was determined. The inhibition of CES1 by the antiviral drugs remdesivir and sofosbuvir was studied, and the IC50 values were determined. The results indicate that remdesivir and sofosbuvir can act as potent modulators of CES1. The inhibitors exhibited mixed‐type inhibition on pig liver cytosol CES1. It was found that the affinity of the remdesivir and sofosbuvir for free enzyme is greater than that for the enzyme‐substrate complex. A spectrofluorimetric method confirmed the inhibition findings, as the fluorescence intensity of remdesivir decreased upon interaction with the enzyme.

Abstract P388: Electrical Stimulation of the Porcine Carotid Sinus Nerve Reliably Decreases Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

Introduction: Neuromodulation of the baroafferent pathway via direct carotid sinus nerve (CSN) stimulation is recognized as a potential therapeutic modality for treating uncontrolled hypertension. Although proof of concept has been demonstrated acutely in humans, there are many questions that remain in both acute and chronic applications. A translational non-companion large animal model is vital for safe development of this modality. Here we present data on the effects of CSN and baroafferent stimulation in farm pigs. Hypothesis: We hypothesized that an effective CSN-bioelectode interface in the pig would demonstrate significant and reproducible reductions in blood pressure in tandem with pulse rate (PR). Methods: Acute CSN stimulation was investigated in 9 anesthetized Yorkshire pigs. Following general anesthesia, CSNs were exposed and an application-specific electrode was placed. A fixed current paradigm was employed at constant 100Hz and 100µs pulse width. Following contact mapping to identify the baroafferent neurointerface, electrical current was escalated to establish dose-response curves. The primary outcome was systolic blood pressure (SBP) and secondary outcomes were diastolic pressure (DBP) and PR. Data were analyzed in Matlab to extract the baseline BP and PR, during and following stimulation. Statistical calculations used a one-sample Wilcoxon signed rank test. Explanted electrodes with surrounding tissue were evaluated using micro-computed tomography (μCT) and histologically. Results: Six of 9 animals were responders (n=7, 2 sides were stimulated in one animal), CSN stimulation caused average (mean±SD, p<0.001) decreases in SBP (6.8±7.2mmHg) and DBP (3.9±3.7mmHg), which tracked closely with decreases in PR (6.2±5.7bpm). Average maximum decreases were: SBP, 9.3±9.9mmHg; DBP, 7.7±6.4mmHg; and PR, 9.7±8.3bpm. Upon stimulation withdrawal, there was near-immediate recovery of both BP and HR. μCT and histological analysis of tissue samples demonstrated inter-animal anatomic heterogeneity. Conclusions: CSN stimulation causes reproducible reduction in BP synchronous with PR drops followed by near immediate recovery of both with stimulation withdrawal. Variations in animal response may be due to anatomical variation in CSN anatomy that can be overcome with further anatomical study. Pigs provide a robust large-animal model for investigating CSN stimulation, offering a platform to better understand baroafferent stimulation as treatment for uncontrolled hypertension.

Prediction of body weight of mixed breeds of pigs in Nigeria through morpho-biometric traits using classification and regression tree models

Prediction of body weight of mixed breeds of pigs in Nigeria through morpho-biometric traits using classification and regression tree models

Polymorphism Identification in the Coding Sequences (ORFs) of the Porcine Pregnancy-Associated Glycoprotein 2-like Gene Subfamily in Pigs.

Pregnancy-associated glycoproteins (PAGs) are a polygenic family with many scattered genes and pseudogenes resulting from the duplication or fusion of a pseudogene with expression beginning in the trophoblast during the peri-implantation period and continuing in the trophectoderm. In this study, single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and insertion/deletion (InDels) in the open reading frame (nine exons) of crossbreed pigs are reported for the first time. Novel SNPs/InDels were researched using genomic DNA templates isolated from the leukocytes of crossbreed pigs (N = 25), which were amplified, gel-out-purified, and sequenced. Sixteen SNPs and one InDel (g.6961_6966 Ins TGCCAA) were identified in the crossbreed pigs. In silico analysis revealed that among 16 SNPs, only 10 SNPs cause amino acid (aa) substitutions, and InDel codes asparagine (N298) and alanine (A299). The results provide a novel broad-based database (main pattern) that will be critical for future research into the possible correlations between the SNP genotypes of the pPAG2-L subfamily in pigs of various breeds whose reproductive traits are known.

Large-scale HEV genotype 3 outbreak on New Caledonia Island.

Several symptomatic cases of HEV infections were reported to the New Caledonia Island Public Health Service between August and December 2023. This prompted epidemiological and virological investigations to identify the source of infection. HEV RNA was assessed in symptomatic patients, various food items, and pig farms on the Island. HEV strains were characterized by sequencing. A seroprevalence study was also conducted on asymptomatic blood donors before and after the outbreak. One hundred twenty-seven symptomatic cases were reported. Hospitalization was required for 29/127 patients (22.8%). Hospitalized patients presented more frequently with comorbidities, including liver and cardiovascular diseases (80.7% vs. 27%, p < 0.01), and 3 persons died (2.3%). Among the 100 HEV RNA-positive samples received at the French National Reference Centre for HEV, viral sequencing was possible for 76 samples. All strains were identified as HEV genotype 3, and 74/76 strains were grouped together (nucleotide identity: 98%-100%). Full-length sequencing indicated a new HEV-3 subtype within HEV-3 subclade abk. Only genotype 3f strains were detected on the Island's pig farms. No food items tested positive for HEV RNA. The seroprevalence of HEV IgG and IgM in blood donors was 9.2% (9/98) and 0%, respectively, in 2020, rising to 17.3% (17/98) and 2% (2/98) in 2024. Although all previous large-scale epidemics in Asia and Africa were associated with HEV-1 or 2, the New Caledonia outbreak was linked to HEV-3. A high number of symptomatic cases were admitted to the hospital, with a case-fatality rate of 2.3%.

No evidence of spread of Linda pestivirus in the wild boar population in Southern Germany

Lateral-shaking inducing neuro-degenerative agent virus (LindaV) is a novel member of the highly diverse genus Pestivirus within the family Flaviviridae. LindaV was first detected in Austria in 2015 and was associated with congenital tremor in piglets. Since then, the virus or specific antibodies have been found in a few further pig farms in Austria. However, the actual spatial distribution and the existence of reservoir hosts is largely unknown. Since other pestiviruses of pigs such as classical swine fever virus or atypical porcine pestivirus can also infect wild boar, the question arises whether LindaV is likewise present in the wild boar population. Therefore, we investigated the presence of neutralizing antibodies against LindaV in 200 wild boar samples collected in Southern Germany, which borders Austria. To establish a serological test system, we made use of the interchangeability of the surface glycoproteins and created a chimeric pestivirus using Bungowannah virus (species Pestivirus australiaense) as synthetic backbone. The E1 and E2 glycoproteins were replaced by the heterologous E1 and E2 of LindaV resulting in the chimera BV_E1E2_LV. Viable virus could be rescued and was subsequently applied in a neutralization test. A specific positive control serum generated against the E2 protein of LindaV gave a strong positive result, thereby confirming the functionality of the test system. All wild boar samples, however, tested negative. Hence, there is no evidence that LindaV has become highly prevalent in the wild boar population in Southern Germany.

Análisis de Componentes Principales de Buenas Prácticas Ganaderas en la producción porcícola: el caso de pequeños porcicultores en Ibagué, Colombia

Good livestock practices were evaluated in 25 production systems of small pig farmers in Ibagué (Tolima, Colombia) to measure the conditions of biosafety, facilities, animal health, feeding and administrative management based on the ICA-Colombia resolutions for pig production systems using principal component analysis and clustering. Information was collected on 585 aspects in 52 variables. The results showed that 100% of the producers do not comply with the minimum biosafety standards that a farm must have to be safe, suitable and competitive, which does not allow them to obtain a certification of good livestock practices in pig production. The principal component analysis identified the aspects with the greatest impact that required improvement. The «technical component» was the most relevant, with 58% of the non-conformities, related to sanitary management, biosafety, facilities and feeding. The second component, «Comprehensive Management», with 8% of the non-conformities, with the variables waste management, planning, management, biosafety and feeding. Additionally, three types of farms were identified: Type A (12%), which showed greater biosecurity, better selection and origin of animals, and greater impact on natural resources; Type B (40%), characterized by good feeding management, better work and animal environment, less administrative management and high impact on natural resources; and Type C (48%), with lower impact on natural resources, lower administrative management and feeding problems. In conclusion, principal component analysis turned out to be a useful tool to identify key areas of improvement in backyard pig farms with up to three breeding females and 10 fattening pigs, aiming to promote good practices and achieve adequate standards in pig production.

Identification of factors affecting fattening efficiency of commercial pig herds and analysis of their impact at different performance levels

Improving fattening efficiency is an important goal of breeding commercial pigs, especially for the large-scale pig farms. Fattening efficiency index (FEI) can be used to evaluate the fattening efficiency. The aim of this study was to identify the factors affecting the fattening efficiency of commercial pigs in large-scale pig farms and further study the impact of these factors on the production performance of commercial pig batches at different production levels. The data of 9,570 batches was mainly consisted of four parts (farm facilities, general information of piglets, production performance of nursery pigs and finishing pigs). A total of 28 variables were evaluated by the multi-variable linear regression models. The differences in production factors significantly correlated with FEI at piglets-finishing stage were compared among high-performing (HP), moderate-performing (MP), and low-performing (LP) batches of commercial pigs during the nursery and finishing stage. Among the 28 variables, 18 were significantly correlated with fattening efficiency (P < 0.05), including 11 continuous variables and seven discrete variables. The significant differences among the 11 consecutive variables in the HP, MP, and LP batches of commercial pigs mostly persisted from the piglets-nursery stage to the growing-finishing stage, ultimately affecting the FEI at piglets-finishing stage. For the seven significant discrete variables, the HP batches had a lower proportions in owned source of piglets, number of the purchasing piglets in spring and winter, number of batches in the East and North regions and five-way crossbred pigs, while a higher proportions in the use of closed circuit television video (CCTV) and wastes treatment system. The fattening efficiency of commercial pigs in large-scale pig farms was comprehensively affected by farm facilities, piglets, and production performance at nursery and finishing stage. The low fattening efficiency may have started at the end of nursery stage.

Characteristics of air-borne and feces-borne ARGs and microbial community in different livestock farms in China

Livestock farms are hotspots of antibiotic resistance due to the intensive use of antibiotics, in which the characteristics of air-borne and feces-borne antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and microbial communities are of great significance. This study delves into the distribution of ARGs and microbial communities across various livestock farms in China, and the correlation of microorganisms between livestock farms and other global environments was investigated. The concentrations of ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in air samples were basically at the same level, but those in fecal samples collected from chicken farms were universally higher than those in pig and cattle farms. There was significant ability of ARGs to spread easily among different bacteria in all samples in livestock farms. Additionally, there may be more possible host bacteria of airborne ARGs in chicken farms. In the global-scale analysis of highly similar microbial communities, the database matching with the highest number of similarities to microbial communities collected from livestock farms is genes related to human sources (54.8%). This study advances our understanding of ARG dynamics in different livestock farms and contributes to the development of sustainable livestock management practices.

Shedding reduction and immunity modulation in piglets with an inactivated Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae vaccine encapsulated in nanostructured SBA-15 silica

Mycoplasma (M.) hyopneumoniae is a primary etiological agent of porcine enzootic pneumonia (PEP), a disease that causes significant economic losses to pig farming worldwide. Current commercial M. hyopneumoniae vaccines induce partial protection, decline in preventing transmission of this pathogen or inducing complete immunity, evidencing the need for improving vaccines against PEP. In our study, we aimed to test the effectiveness of the SBA-15 ordered mesoporous silica nanostructured particles as an immune adjuvant of a vaccine composed of M. hyopneumoniae strain 232 proteins encapsulated in SBA-15 and administered by intramuscular route in piglets to evaluate the immune responses and immune-protection against challenge. Forty-eight 24-day-old M. hyopneumoniae-free piglets were divided into four experimental groups with different protocols, encompassing a commercial vaccine against M. hyopneumoniae, SBA-15 vaccine, SBA-15 adjuvant without antigens and a non-immunized group. All piglets were challenged with the virulent strain 232 of M. hyopneumoniae. Piglets that received the SBA-15 and commercial vaccine presented marked immune responses characterized by anti-M. hyopneumoniae IgA and IgG antibodies in serum, anti-M. hyopneumoniae IgA antibodies in nasal mucosa and showed an upregulation of IL-17 and IL-4 cytokines and downregulation of IFN-γ in lungs 35 days post-infection. Piglets immunized with SBA-15 vaccine presented a reduction of bacterial shedding compared to piglets immunized with a commercial bacterin. In addition, piglets from SBA-15 adjuvant suspension group presented increased IL-17 gene expression in the lungs without involvement of Th1 and Th2 responses after challenge. These results indicated that SBA-15 vaccine induced both humoral and cell-mediated responses in the upper respiratory tract and lungs, first site of replication and provided protection against M. hyopneumoniae infection with a homologous strain with reduction of lung lesions and bacterial shedding. Finally, these results enhance the potential use of new technologies such as nanostructured particles applied in vaccines for the pig farming industry.

Quantification of wildlife visits to pig farms via camera traps in Japan

Infectious diseases in livestock not only cause significant economic losses but also affect food security. Although wildlife may be involved in these infectious diseases by serving as reservoirs, research has primarily focused on livestock and related species. Moreover, while these species represent a potential threat in wildlife-borne infectious diseases, comprehensive surveys of the presence of various species are limited. In this study, we aimed to quantitatively investigate the occurrence of various mammals and birds at three pig farms in Japan. We conducted camera trap surveys from October 15, 2020, to March 24, 2022, and determined the relative abundance index inside and outside the sanitary control zone. Wild boar (Sus scrofa), sika deer (Cervus nippon), and Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus) were photographed only outside the sanitary control zone. In contrast, small and medium-sized mammals, such as feral cats (Felis catus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and rodent species (Muridae), and birds, such as the rufous oriental turtle dove (Streptopelia orientalis) and crows of the genus Corvus, were photographed both inside and outside the sanitary control zone. This comprehensive quantitative evidence suggests that various mammals and birds may be in indirect contact with livestock, highlighting the need to improve biosecurity at livestock farms. Moreover, while fences are effective against large mammals, they are inefficient against small to medium-sized mammals and birds. Therefore, the results of this study provide important insights into enhancing biosecurity on livestock farms by strengthening physical fencing, disinfecting clothing and equipment, and complying with standards of hygiene management.

Revealing the lethal effects of Pasteurella multocida toxin on multiple organ systems.

Pasteurella multocida toxin (PMT) is one of the most important virulence factors of Pasteurella multocida type D. Pasteurella multocida infection has caused enormous economic losses in the pig farming industry. Although it is well known that this bacterial infection causes progressive atrophic rhinitis, its effects on other organ tissues in pigs are unclear. In this study, PMT was expressed and purified, and the cytotoxic effects of PMT on four types of swine cells, LLC-PK1, PAM, IPEC, and ST, were investigated. LLC-PK1 exhibited the highest sensitivity to the cytotoxic effects of PMT. Our studies revealed that a PMT concentration of 0.1 μg/kg can lead to weight loss, whereas a PMT concentration of 0.5 μg/kg can lead to death in mice. PMT causes damage to the intestines, kidneys, lungs, livers, and spleens of mice. Furthermore, PMT caused acute death in pigs at treatment concentrations greater than 5 μg/kg; at PMT concentration of 2.5 μg/kg, weight loss occurred until death. PMT mainly caused damage to the hearts, lungs, livers, spleens and kidneys of pigs. The organ coefficient showed that damage to the heart and kidneys was the most severe and caused the renal pelvis and renal pyramid to dissolve and become cavitated. Pathology revealed hemorrhage in the lungs, liver, and spleen, and the kidneys were swollen and vacuolated, which was consistent with the damaged target organs in the mice. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that PMT is extremely toxic in vitro and in vivo, causing damage to various organs of the body, especially the kidneys and lungs. This study provides a theoretical basis for the in-depth exploration of the cytotoxic effects of PMT on target organs.

Factors affecting the level of commercialization of smallholder pig farmers in the west rand district municipality of gauteng, South Africa

This study aimed to analyse the factors influencing the smallholder pig farmers’ level of commercialization in the agricultural markets in the West Rand District of Gauteng Province, South Africa. A total population sampling was used, where data was collected from 84 smallholder pig farmers by a semi-structured questionnaire. Version 28.0 of the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), binary logistic regression, and multinomial logit models were used to analyse the collected data. The results showed that 78.6% of the smallholder pig farmers lacked commercialization. The results further indicated that the pig unit size, level of the farmers’ commercialization, number of piglets per sow, and farmers’ affiliation had a significant influence on the smallholder pig farmers' access to high-value markets. Variables such as credit availability, market accessibility, and the quantity of the piglets per sow significantly impacted the level of commercialization among the interviewed smallholder pig farmers. Smallholder farmers’ access to commercial and high-value pig markets is not easily accessible; therefore, the municipalities and local agricultural departments should make provision for an agricultural extension program that will prioritize and concentrate on the smallholder farmers’ access to the high-value market.

Epidemiology and antibiotic resistance of staphylococci on commercial pig farms in Cape Town, South Africa

Staphylococci are responsible for a wide range of infections in animals. The most common species infecting animals include Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus intermedius. Recent increases in antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance in animals highlight the need to understand the potential role of commercial livestock as a reservoir of staphylococci and antibiotic resistance genes. Nasal swabs were collected from 143 apparently healthy pigs and 21 pig farm workers, and 45 environmental swabs of feed and water troughs, from two commercial pig farms in the Western Cape, South Africa. Staphylococci were isolated, identified using mass-spectrometry, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing and Illumina whole genome sequencing were performed. One hundred and eighty-five (185) Staphylococcus spp. isolates were obtained, with Mammalicoccus sciuri (n = 57; 31%) being the most common, followed by S. hyicus (n = 40; 22%) and S. aureus (n = 29; 16%). S. epidermidis was predominantly identified in the farm workers (n = 18; 86%). Tetracycline resistance was observed across all species, with rates ranging from 67 to 100%. Majority of M. sciuri isolates (n = 40; 70%) were methicillin resistant, with 78% (n = 31) harbouring mecA. M. sciuri isolates had genes/elements which were associated with SCCmec_type_III (3A) and SCCmec_type_VIII(4A) and were mostly observed in ST61 strains. ST239 strains were associated with SCCmec_type_III(3A). High rates of tetracycline resistance were identified among staphylococci in the pig farms in Western Cape, South Africa. This highlights the need for policy makers to regulate the use of this antibiotic in pig farming.

Twenty-five years of Nipah outbreaks in Southeast Asia: A persistent threat to global health

ObjectivesNipah virus (NiV), a bat-borne zoonotic pathogen, poses persistent threats to global public health due to severe clinical manifestation and high case fatality rate (CFR). A critical examination of NiV outbreaks is essential for refining strategies and mitigating the impact of future infections. In this study, we provide a concise update on global NiV outbreaks that occurred during the past 25 years. MethodsIn this geospatial study, we conducted an in-depth examination of the epidemiological characteristics of human NiV cases and deaths from 1998 to 2024 through multiple analyses of public data and official reports. ResultsNiV emerged in 1998 in Malaysia during an outbreak among pig farmers. Since then, NiV outbreaks have been documented in five countries of South and Southeast Asia (Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore). As of May 2024, there have been 754 confirmed human NiV cases with 435 deaths (CFR: 58%) reported in these five countries. Bangladesh records the highest incidence (341 cases and 241 deaths; CFR: 71%) followed by Malaysia (283 cases and 109 deaths; CFR: 39%), India (102 cases and 74 deaths; CFR: 73%), the Philippines (17 cases and nine deaths; CFR: 53%), and Singapore (11 cases and one death; CFR: 9%). ConclusionsThe clinical outcomes of NiV have been underscoring constant global public health threats as no effective therapies and vaccines are available. Strong global understandings, with an eye on developing vaccines and therapeutics, are required to minimize clinical outcomes and future threats of NiV.

New management grading for pig farms: management grading system using pig carcass weight, back fat thickness and k-means algorithm.

This study categorized farm management levels to improve the productivity and uniformity of pork from pigs shipped from farms. A total of 48,298 pigs were grouped (A, B, C, D group) using the k-means algorithm, carcass weight and backfat thickness. The results of the grouping were used to classify farm management grades (A, B, C, D grade). The proportion of primal cuts in pigs, according to the new classification method, increased from group A to group D for shoulder blade, shoulder picnic, and ham, but decreased for loin and belly. In the regression analysis of the five primal cuts (shoulder blade, shoulder picnic, loin, belly, and ham) production (kg) for each group, all regression equations showed low errors (MAE<0.7), indicating that the model can predict the production of primal cuts by group. As the farm management grade decreased, the proportion of pigs in the group with large differences from the mean of carcass weight and backfat thickness of the whole pig increased. The results of this study confirmed the differences in primal cut traits by pig grouping and created a method to classify farms who ship non-uniform pigs. This is expected to provide indicators for improvement and supplementation to farms that ship uneven pigs, helping to enhance the production of standardized pigs at the farm level.

Importance of Macroscopic Environmental Analysis for spring preservation used for human consumption

The lack and deterioration of the quality of water resources have made governments take educational measures and required society to rethink habits concerning the preservation and conservation of water quality. Thus, the present study aims to present the importance of spring preservation for water quality conservation as well as to develop a macroscopic environmental analysis of springs located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Twenty springs were observed in two different periods of the year (May and November 2019), which had different economic activities: native forest – public domain; soybean, tobacco, and pig farming – private domain, in their surroundings. The study adopted five replications (different municipalities), and a macroscopic environmental analysis was carried out in each spring to classify them according to the extent of preservation. It was observed that most of the springs show “Good” and “Very good” preservation. However, it can be concluded that the economic activities developed in the surroundings do not interfere with spring preservation, and the methodology adopted is not recommended for the macroscopic environmental analysis in areas of native forest due to the characteristics considered.

Detection of anti-Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae antibodies in backyard pigs in the state of Paraná, Brazil.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is the causative bacterium of porcine enzootic pneumonia and one of the primary etiologic agents of the porcine respiratory disease complex. Most Brazilian commercial pig farms are positive for this pathogen. However, the prevalence of the pathogen in backyard pig farms has not been described, to our knowledge. Therefore, we aimed to determine the prevalence of M. hyopneumoniae in backyard pig farms in the state of Paraná, Brazil. In January-March 2020, we collected 585 serum samples from pigs in 187 non-vaccinated herds. We tested the sera with an indirect ELISA for anti-M. hyopneumoniae antibodies and found that 182 of 585 (31.1%) samples were positive, and were found in 109 of 187 (58.3%) herds assessed.

A Life Cycle Assessment Study of the Impacts of Pig Breeding on the Environmental Sustainability of Pig Production.

Lifecycle assessment (LCA) quantified changes in environmental impact categories (global warming, eutrophication, etc.) from 2021 to 2030 due to genetic trends in (re)production traits in pig lines of the breeding company Genus-PIC. The 2030 levels were projected with selection index theory based on weightings of traits in the breeding goals and genetic covariances among them. The projected improvement was 0.9% annually for most impact categories. Another LCA compared the impacts of 2021 North American pig production based on PIC genetics versus the industry average. Software openLCA converted material and energy flows to impact categories of frameworks ReCiPe-2016, PEF-3.1, and IPCC-2021. Flows came from data recorded by customers (1.1/4.7 million sows/finishing pigs) and by subscribers to a third-party data aggregator (1.3/9.1 million). PIC genetics have a 7-8% better impact than industry average for 13/18 categories of ReCiPe-2016, 19/25 of PEF-3.1, and all categories of IPCC-2001. Pig breeding delivers positive environmental outcomes as correlated responses to selection for profitability-oriented breeding goals. This trend is additive; technology development will increase it. Different investment levels in breeding population structure and technology and different operational efficiencies of breeding companies cause substantial differences in the environmental impact of pig production.

Advancement in the Antigenic Epitopes and Vaccine Adjuvants of African Swine Fever Virus.

African swine fever virus (ASFV), a highly virulent double-stranded DNA virus, poses a significant threat to global pig farming, with mortality rates in domestic pigs reaching up to 100%. Originating in Kenya in 1921, ASFV has since proliferated to Western Europe, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and most recently China in 2018, resulting in substantial global agricultural losses. Antigenic epitopes, recognized by the immune system's T cells and B cells, are pivotal in antiviral immune responses. The identification and characterization of these antigenic epitopes can offer invaluable insights into the immune response against ASFV and aid in the development of innovative immunotherapeutic strategies. Vaccine adjuvants, substances that amplify the body's specific immune response to antigens, also play a crucial role. This review provides an overview of the progress in studying T/B-cell epitopes in ASFV proteins and ASFV vaccine adjuvants, highlighting their role in the immune response and potential use in new vaccine development.