Plastic Pieces Research Articles

Peritoneal Dialysis Catheter Malfunction by Plastic Piece: Case Report

Peritoneal Dialysis Catheter Malfunction by Plastic Piece: Case Report

Negligible Impact of Ingested Microplastics on Tissue Concentrations of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Northern Fulmars off Coastal Norway.

The northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) is defined as an indicator species of plastic pollution by the Oslo-Paris Convention for the North-East Atlantic, but few data exist for fulmars from Norway. Moreover, the relationship between uptake of plastic and pollutants in seabirds is poorly understood. We analyzed samples of fulmars from Norwegian waters and compared the POP concentrations in their liver and muscle tissue with the corresponding concentrations in the loads of ingested plastic in their stomachs, grouped as "no", "medium" (0.01-0.21 g; 1-14 pieces of plastic), or "high" (0.11-0.59 g; 15-106 pieces of plastic). POP concentrations in the plastic did not differ significantly between the high and medium plastic ingestion group for sumPCBs, sumDDTs, and sumPBDEs. By combining correlations among POP concentrations, differences in tissue concentrations of POPs between plastic ingestion subgroups, fugacity calculations, and bioaccumulation modeling, we showed that plastic is more likely to act as a passive sampler than as a vector of POPs, thus reflecting the POP profiles of simultaneously ingested prey.

Removal of Sheet Plastic Materials from Seed Cotton Using a Cylinder Cleaner

U.S.-produced cotton is among the cleanest available in the world; however, pieces of sheet plastic are found occasionally in cotton bales produced in the U.S. Standard cotton ginning equipment is not efficient in removing plastic contaminating seed cotton. The purpose of this work was to examine how selected operating conditions affect the sheet-plastic removal efficiency and fiber loss of one type of gin cleaning machine, the cylinder cleaner. In the first part, two sources of plastic were each tested in a central composite design, varying air flow rate through the machine, seed cotton processing rate, and size of plastic contaminant. In the second part, only one plastic source was used, but two cotton cultivars were tested in a central composite design. An additional response surface variable, cylinder rotation speed, was evaluated. Plastic removal increased linearly with increasing air flow rate and decreasing size of the plastic pieces. The effect of seed cotton processing rate on plastic removal was less significant than the effect of air flow rate or plastic size in the first part and was not statistically significant in the second part. The plastic from shopping bag material was removed more effectively than module wrap material. More plastic was removed at lower cylinder rotation speeds. Fiber loss increased with higher air flow rates or cylinder rotation speeds and lower seed cotton processing rates. Lower cylinder rotation speeds increased plastic removal and decreased fiber loss; selecting the optimum air flow rate was a compromise between plastic removal and fiber loss.

Partial Obstruction of the Endotracheal Tube by the Plastic Coating Sheared from a Stylet.

A preterm with gestational age of 24 weeks was intubated at day of life 16. The intubation was done in a routine manner with the use of a stylet. It took a significant effort from the clinician to pull the stylet out after intubation. After intubation the respiratory status of the neonate deteriorated requiring significantly greater support. When ventilating and oxygenating the infant was getting progressively difficult, the decision was made to change the endotracheal tube (ETT). The cause for deterioration of respiratory status was then determined to be a sheared piece of plastic from the sheath of the stylet which was lodged in the lumen of the ETT. After removal of the plastic particle, the condition of the infant improved significantly.

Usage of Nest Materials by House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) Along an Urban to Rural Gradient in Coimbatore, India.

The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a widely distributed bird species found throughout the world. Being a species which has close association with humans, they chiefly nest on man-made structures. Here we describe the materials used by the house sparrow for making nests along an urban to rural gradient. For the current study, we selected the Coimbatore to Anaikatty road (State Highway-164), a 27 km inter-state highway, which traverses along an urban core to rural outstretch of Coimbatore. Of the 30 nests observed, 15 nests were from the rural, 8 were from the suburban, and 7 were from the urban areas. The nests had two distinct layers, specifically the structural layer and the inner lining. In the current study, we identified 11 plant species, 2 types of animal matter, and 6 types of anthropogenic matter, including plastic pieces and fine rope. The amount of anthropogenic materials in the nest formation varied along the gradients. The usage of anthropogenic materials was high in urban areas (p<0.05) whereas it did not differ at the sub-urban regions (p>0.05). A gradual decrease in the usage of plant matter towards the urban area was noticed (p<0.05). This study explicitly documents the links between nest material usage along an urban to rural gradient, in a human associated bird.

The Future of Bacteria Cleaning Our Plastic Waste

THE FUTURE OF BACTERIA CLEANING OUR PLASTIC WASTE BY ALLISON CHAN REVIEWING PROGRESS IN CLEANING PLASTIC-FILLED OCEANS USING NOVEL BIOLOGICAL METHODS E verything has a beginning and an end. An apple core thrown into the dirt can be consumed by a worm, which then excretes nutritious waste for new plants to grow on. However, man-made items such as plastics, styrofoam, rubber, and aluminum are defying this natural cycle that allows growth in our ecosystem. What happens to the plastic water bottle you might have used the last time you went hiking? While an apple can be recy- cled into new material within two months, a plastic bottle can take more than 400 years to decompose. Plastic waste chokes the normal cycles of our ecosystem, and it is critical to find ways to flush the durable material out without harming the environ- ment even more. While we may think of plastic as cheap, lightweight, and disposable, like our to-go package: plastic spoon, fork, contain- er, cup, and bag, it doesn’t just “disappear” after thrown away. Instead, much of it actually collects in the ocean. IN 2015, IT WAS ESTIMATED THAT MORE THAN 5 TRILLION PLASTIC PIECES WEIGHING OVER 268,940 TONS WERE AFLOAT AT SEA, not including the larger plastic debris. 4 How did it get there? One of the most common ways that marine debris trav- els from land to water is by being swept through storm drains during rain storms. Rivers and waterways also wash trash into the bay. While we do not see the supposed amount of used plastic on land, most of it collects in our oceans. Most critically, the plastic in the ocean endangers marine life because it is a choking hazard and toxic. Marine animals such as sea turtles, mammals, seabirds, and crustaceans are vulnerable to entanglement encounters, which can lead to mortality. Plastics, espe- cially polyvinyl chloride, or PVC, are toxic for our health and the environment. 9 PVC releases mercury, dioxins, and phthal- ates, which could lead to life-long health threats, such as cancer and damages to the immune or reproductive system. 3 Plastics take a long time to decompose- but what about biodegrad- able plastics? Contrary to what one might expect, BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS MAY NOT ACTUALLY BIODEGRADE QUICKLY, due to the fact that most of it ends up in the ocean. Even in favorable environments, such as in the soil with bacteria, fungi, or hot temperatures, biodegradable plastic bags only half-decompose after 389 days. 2 Degradation of biodegradable plastics takes approximately 3 years underwater, since these biodegrading conditions differ from what we see on land. In addition, heavier plastics would not be able to break down by UV light if they sink. While there may be ways to remediate the harm done, sea debris continues to increase, making cleanup programs insufficient. FALL 2016 | Berkeley Scientific Journal

Marine litter on Mediterranean shores: Analysis of composition, spatial distribution and sources in north-western Adriatic beaches

Marine litter is one descriptor in the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). This study provides the first account of an MSFD indicator (Trends in the amount of litter deposited on coastlines) for the north-western Adriatic. Five beaches were sampled in 2015. Plastic dominated in terms of abundance, followed by paper and other groups. The average density was 0.2litteritemsm−2, but at one beach it raised to 0.57itemsm−2. The major categories were cigarette butts, unrecognizable plastic pieces, bottle caps, and others. The majority of marine litter came from land-based sources: shoreline and recreational activities, smoke-related activities and dumping. Sea-based sources contributed for less. The abundance and distribution of litter seemed to be particularly influenced by beach users, reflecting inadequate disposal practices. The solution to these problems involves implementation and enforcement of local educational and management policies.

Microplastics in coastal sediments from Southern Portuguese shelf waters

Microplastics are well-documented pollutants in the marine environment that result from fragmentation of larger plastic items. Due to their long chemical chains, they can remain in the environment for long periods of time. It is estimated that the vast majority (80%) of marine litter derives from land sources and that 70% will sink and remain at the bottom of the ocean. Microplastics that result from fragmentation of larger pieces of plastic are common to be found in beaches and in the water surface. The most common microplastics are pellets, fragments and fibres.This work provides original data of the presence of microplastics in coastal sediments from Southern Portuguese shelf waters, reporting on microplastic concentration and polymer types.Microplastic particles were found in nearly 56% of sediment samples, accounting a total of 31 particles in 27 samples. The vast majority were microfibers (25), identified as rayon fibres, and fragments (6) identified as polypropylene, through infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR). The concentration and polymer type data is consistent with other relevant studies and reports worldwide.

Dangerous traps: Anhingas mistake anthropogenic debris for prey fish at an urban site in South-eastern Brazil

Impacts of anthropogenic inedible debris on seabirds have been well documented, but on inland waterbirds this kind of pollution remains poorly recorded. Herein we report 21 instances of inedible objects stuck in the bill of Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga), a fish-eating waterbird which has the cutting edges of the mandible serrated. Disturbance and harm by pieces of plastic, rope, and cotton stuck in the bill were recorded. Debris caused drag and prevented the birds from fishing. Birds with small pieces of material stuck on their bills were still able to fish, but their hunting success decreased. When the debris was large and stuck on the bill for long, the birds possibly starved and some of them died. The time spent to clean up the bill was related to the type of material, ranging from 1 to 17 days. Our records illustrate the deleterious effect that anthropogenic debris has on the life of a Neotropical aquatic inland bird.

Facilitated Leaching of Additive-Derived PBDEs from Plastic by Seabirds’ Stomach Oil and Accumulation in Tissues

Our previous study suggested the transfer of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants from ingested plastics to seabirds' tissues. To understand how the PBDEs are transferred, we studied leaching from plastics into digestive fluids. We hypothesized that stomach oil, which is present in the digestive tract of birds in the order Procellariiformes, acts as an organic solvent, facilitating the leaching of hydrophobic chemicals. Pieces of plastic compounded with deca-BDE were soaked in several leaching solutions. Trace amounts were leached into distilled water, seawater, and acidic pepsin solution. In contrast, over 20 times as much material was leached into stomach oil, and over 50 times as much into fish oil (a major component of stomach oil). Analysis of abdominal adipose, liver tissue, and ingested plastics from 18 wild seabirds collected from the North Pacific Ocean showed the occurrence of deca-BDE or hexa-BDEs in both the tissues and the ingested plastics in three of the birds, suggesting transfer from the plastic to the tissues. In birds with BDE209 in their tissues, the dominance of BDE207 over other nona-BDE isomers suggested biological debromination at the meta position. Model calculation of PBDE exposure to birds based on the results of the leaching experiments combined with field observations suggested the dominance of plastic-mediated internal exposure to BDE209 over exposure via prey.

Non-invasive methodology for the identification of plastic pieces in museum environment — a novel approach

The preservation of modern and contemporary art and costume collections in museums requires a complete understanding of their constituent materials which are often synthetic or semi-synthetic polymers. An extraordinary amount of quality information can be gained from instrumental techniques, but some of them have the disadvantage of being destructive.This paper presents a new totally integrated non-invasive methodology, for the identification of polymers and their additives, on plastic artefacts in museums. NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) and in-situ FTIR-ATR (attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy) combination allowed the full characterization of the structure of these materials and correct identification of each one. The NMR technique applied to leached surface exudates identified unequivocally a great number of additives, exceeding the Py–GC–MS analysis of micro-fragments in number and efficiency. Additionally, in-situ FTIR-ATR provided exactly the same information of the destructive μ-FTIR about the polymer structure and confirmed the presence of some additives.Eight costume pieces (cosmetic boxes and purses), dating to the beginning of the 20th century and belonging to the Portuguese National Museum of Costume and Fashion, were correctly identified with this new integrated methodology, as being made of plastics derived from cellulose acetate or cellulose nitrate polymers, contradicting the initial information that these pieces were made of Bakelite. The identification of a surprisingly large number of different additives forms an added value of this methodology and opens a perspective of a quick and better characterization of plastic artefacts in museum environments.

CONTROL STUDIES ON THE GLASSY CLOVER SNAIL,MONACHA CARTUSIANA UNDER LABORATORY AND FIELD CONDITIONS

ontrol studies had been conducted under laboratory and field conditions on Monacha cartusiana snail. Laboratory studies was carried out to evaluate the effect of Diesel oil on egg hatchability of the same land snail M. cartusiana with three application rates 10,20 and 30 L/Fe.Result assured that no any egg can hatching when Diesel oil applied with three application rates. On the other hand, when Diesel oil applied under field conditions to control M. cartusiana snail,with application rates 30 L/Fe., the reduction rate was 5.07% only. Regarding evalution of three application methods (hand sowing, underplant stack and piles on plastic pieces) for metaldehyde and methiocarb, under field condition. Results revealed that per cent reduction of metaldehyde and methiocarb (as ready made bait) were markedly increased when, applied as hand sowing as compared when they used as piels on plastic under plant stacked.

Plastics on the Half Shell

People who often eat oysters, mussels, or other bivalves could also be swallowing thousands of plastic particles each year. Recent studies by Belgian scientists offer the first direct evidence that tiny plastic fragments are entering the human diet through cultured and wild seafood. As filter feeders, bivalves draw in an estuary’s rich organic soup of water and plankton through their open shells and gills. They also draw in tiny plastic fragments, many of which can get trapped in the animals’ guts, tissues, and circulatory systems, according to a study in the October 2014 issue of Environmental Pollution by environmental toxicologists Lisbeth Van Cauwenberghe and Colin R. Janssen, of Ghent University, in Belgium. The authors reported on the numbers of very small plastic particles (less than 25 microns in diameter) found in two commonly farmed and commercially important species: the mussel (Mytilus edulis) and the oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Previous studies have exposed animals to microplastics (less than 5 millimeters in diameter) at very high concentrations in laboratory settings to test the physical and chemical impacts on the animals. The 2014 study, however, was the first to look inside organisms for microplastics that animals had ingested in the sea. The researchers faced technical challenges in extracting microscopic plastic bits from fleshy bivalves. “It’s difficult to figure out a method to extract plastic particles from the tissue,” says Cauwenberghe, “because the particles are so small and there’s a lot of tissue.” The researchers acquired farmraised mussels reared in the North Sea of Germany. Oysters, sealed in an airtight package, were acquired from a supermarket and reared in the Atlantic waters of Brittany, France. They put half of the oysters in filtered seawater for three days to clear their guts. The rest of the oysters were immediately prepared for analysis. The mussels were similarly prepared. The researchers then removed each animal from its shell and weighed its soft wet tissues. Next, the tissues were digested in an overnight solution of 69 percent nitric acid, followed by two hours of boiling and then by dilution with filtered water. The remaining material was filtered, dried, and examined for microplastics. The plastic pieces were counted and characterized for size. One surprising result was that gut clearances over three days did not remove the majority of plastic items in either animal. The average microplastic load was 0.36 particles per gram of soft tissue in the mussels prepared for analysis on arrival at the lab, whereas an average of 0.24 particles remained in the gut-cleared mussels. A similar trend was observed in the oysters. So where did plastic particles become stuck in the organisms? Plastic particles in the size range of 10–20 microns are small enough to slip through a bivalve’s gut wall into its circulatory system or tissues and become lodged there. Larger particles could have become lodged in an animal’s digestive system, says Cauwenberghe. In an average portion of cultured oysters, a diner would consume about 50 particles. In an average portion of cultured mussels, a person would consume 90 plastic particles. For a heavy consumer of bivalves, this might amount to dietary exposure of 11,000 microplastics per year. It is not only cultured bivalves that are accumulating microplastics. In an April 2015 study in Environmental Pollution, Cauwenberghe and her colleagues found an average of 0.2 microplastics per gram of soft tissue after gut clearance in wild M. edulis harvested at six sites along the French–Belgian–Dutch shoreline. The wild mussels, then, had slightly lower concentrations than cultured ones had in the 2014 study, but their different locations made comparisons difficult. Wild mussels are intertidal—meaning they are out of the water during part of each day— whereas cultured mussels are subtidal and exposed longer to microplastics in the water column. Now, teams of scientists are working on new technologies that could help identify microplastics lodged in marine animals without the time and expense of laboratory studies, according to Mark Anthony Browne, senior research associate at the University of New South Wales, in Australia. “A lot of people are working quite hard to develop techniques that would allow us for the first time to scan tissues and find bits of plastic accumulating in the protein and the things that we eat every day,” he says. Browne is part of an Australian team developing vibrational spectroscopy techniques that could be used in the field to take samples and find the unique fingerprints of various plastic chemical bonds: “We could take a blood or tissue sample of a killer whale, a mussel, fish, or a human, and then we could see the plastic inside.”

The application of pneumatic jigging in the recovery of metallic fraction from shredded printed wiring boards.

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is one of the fastest growing waste streams worldwide with volumes increasing by 40% each year. WEEE has attracted increasing concern worldwide due to its high metal content and the potential environmental threat which results from uncontrolled recycling practices. Innovative physical separation techniques for WEEE recycling are preferential compared with chemical methods because of the reduction of energy and chemical consumption as well as potential environmental threats. Pneumatic jigging is a dry separation process capable of achieving good separation of coarse material within a very narrow density range, which makes it suitable as a pretreatment process for WEEE recycling. The work presented in this paper investigates the potential application of pneumatic jigging in metal recovery from WEEE. A pilot scale pneumatic jig has been developed by University of Nottingham Ningbo to separate shredded printed wiring boards into two streams: a light fraction (mainly non-metallic fraction consisting of glass fiber, fluffs, and plastic pieces) and dense fraction (metallic fraction). The novelty of work presented in this paper is the application of a dry separation technique in WEEE recycling for metal recovery. Compared with conventional wet separation processes involved in WEEE recycling industry, dry separation has the advantage of zero secondary pollution. The results of this experimental program show pneumatic jigging to be an effective and environmental friendly technique as a pretreatment process for the recovery of the metallic fraction from shredded WEEE.

52nd Society for Photographic Education National Conference

Research Article| May 01 2015 52nd Society for Photographic Education National Conference Karen vanMeenen Karen vanMeenen KAREN vanMeenen is editor of Afterimage. Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Afterimage (2015) 42 (6): 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1525/aft.2015.42.6.6 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Karen vanMeenen; 52nd Society for Photographic Education National Conference. Afterimage 1 May 2015; 42 (6): 6–7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/aft.2015.42.6.6 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAfterimage Search This content is only available via PDF. © 2015 Afterimage/Visual Studies Workshop, unless otherwise noted. Reprints require written permission and acknowledgement of previous publication in Afterimage.2015 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

The Dynamic Density Bottle: A Make-and-Take, Guided Inquiry Activity on Density

An activity is described wherein students observe dynamic floating and sinking behavior of plastic pieces in various liquids. The liquids and solids are all contained within a plastic bottle; the entire assembly is called a “density bottle”. After completing a series of experiments that guides students to think about the relative densities of both the liquids and solids in the bottle, students are able to explain the curious floating and sinking phenomena. As a part of the activity, students construct their own bottles and are encouraged to describe to others how the density bottle works. These bottles can be constructed using inexpensive and easily obtained materials. The level of inquiry involved in the activity can be tailored to meet the particular interests and needs of students. Modifications to the density bottle, including an engaging one that uses LEGO pieces, are discussed.

A genet drive-through: are large spotted genets using urban areas for “fast food”? a dietary analysis

Knowledge of an urban carnivore’s foraging behavior is vital to understanding its ecology. This is particularly important as urbanization continues to convert natural habitats into human-altered landscapes. Over the past few years there have been increasing reports of large spotted genets (Genetta tigrina) foraging within suburbs of towns and cities in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Consequently, we investigated the dietary composition of urban G. tigrina using scat analyses, and the influence of predictable supplementary feeding stations on their feeding behavior in the suburbs of Kloof/Hillcrest, KwaZulu-Natal. Prey items with the highest relative frequency of occurrence were invertebrates (42.5 %). In particular, their scats found in anthropogenic structures such as roofs and out buildings were dominated by cockroaches (Blattodea). Small mammals also formed an important component of the diet. Significant seasonal variation in diet was recorded. The highest recorded relative frequency of occurrence of reptiles in scats was during spring (8.6 %). The highest recorded relative frequency of occurrence of anthropogenic refuse in the scats was in winter (12.7 %) with pieces of plastic, elastic bands and cardboard present in the scats. Uncommon genet behavior recorded at artificial feeding stations included diurnal feeding patterns and multiple individuals feeding with no signs of aggression. The presence of pet food, invertebrates associated with anthropogenic structures, and anthropogenic pollution/waste in the diet of urban genets, as well as their ability to use supplemental feeding stations highlights their adaptability to make use of temporally or locally available food resources within the urban environment.

Celiotomy by plastrotomy in a yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata)

One herein reports a successful case of celiotomy by plastrotomy for removal of foreign bodies in yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata). The animal was treated at the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Piaui, with appetite loss, regurgitation, constipation, lethargy, reluctance to walk and slightly reddish ocular mucous membranes. Radiographic examination was performed, confirming the presence of foreign bodies in the stomach. The tortoise underwent celiotomy by plastrotomy for the removal of the foreign bodies. The opening of the plastron was performed through the abdominal shields, with the aid of a circular mini grinding saw. One performed an incision in the midline between the two abdominal veins to access the abdominal cavity. A gastrotomy for removal of the foreign bodies (nails, toothpicks, stones, pieces of plastic, glass and crockery pieces) was performed after the location of the stomach. The surgery was successful and confirmed with radiographic evaluation in the immediate postoperative period. The celiotomy by plastrotomy for removal of foreign bodies in that animal proved to be a viable, very important and safe technique to the survival of chelonians.

Unconfined compressive strength of PET waste-mixed residual soils

Plastic wastes, particularly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) generated from used bottled water constitute a worldwide environmental issue. Reusing the PET waste for geotechnical applications not only reduces environmental burdens of handling the waste, but also improves inherent engineering properties of soil. This paper investigated factors affecting shear strength improvement of PET-mixed residual soil. Four variables were considered: (i) plastic content; (ii) plastic slenderness ratio; (iii) plastic size; and (iv) soil particle size. A series of unconfined compression tests were performed to determine the optimum configurations for promoting the shear strength improvement. The results showed that the optimum slenderness ratio and PET content for shear strength improvement were 1:3 and 1.5%, respectively. Large PET pieces (i.e., <TEX>$1.0cm^2$</TEX>) were favorable for fine-grained residual soil, while small PET pieces (i.e., <TEX>$0.5cm^2$</TEX>) were favorable for coarse-grained residual soil. Higher shear strength improvement was obtained for PET-mixed coarse-grained residual soil (148%) than fine-grained residual soils (117%). The orientation of plastic pieces in soil and frictional resistance developed between soil particles and PET surface are two important factors affecting the shear strength performance of PET-mixed soil.

Marine Pollution: The Problematic of Microplastics

Throughout the history of mankind and the conquest of the seas and oceans, these water masses were always seen as unlimited sinks of wastes since they were assumed as being able to disperse, dilute and redistribute natural and synthetic substances. However, in the last few decades, we have finally realized that this capacity is not unlimited [1,2]. According to the literature, each year about 6.4 million tons of litter are deposited in oceans and seas. Per year, there are about 8 million tons of daily sewage, together with 5 million tons of solid residues, thrown into the marine environment by boats. Moreover, it was estimated that more than 13,000 plastic pieces are floating per each square kilometer of ocean [3]. The marine litter is a great and crescent environmental threat since it can be found in all oceans and seas, even in remote places far away from obvious sources of pollution. Marine litter can migrate long distances through oceans currents and winds being observed in marine and coastal environments, from poles to equator, from continental littorals to small remote islands. Islands completely made of litter already exist and the slow degradation process of litter aggravates this problem [4].