Piecemeal Process Research Articles

Helping learners to evaluate care

The evaluation of care is necessary to sense and judge outcome. It represents the launch point for a new cycle of care planning, for example, the updating of care plans or revisions to rehabilitation schedules. In practice, though, care evaluation is difficult to teach to students. It is often a piecemeal process, using unspoken standards that have been widely accepted but not recorded over several years. You can assist the learner to obtain a clearer grasp of care evaluation by following a few principles.

Some boundary conditions of the expressor culture effect in emotion recognition: Evidence from Hong Kong Chinese perceivers

In a recent review of the emotion recognition literature, Elfenbein and Ambady (2002) found that recognition is generally more accurate for perceivers from the same cultural group as the emotion expressors. In two studies conducted in Hong Kong, we found little evidence for such expressor culture effect. In contrast, a reverse trend was found in the recognition of several emotions. We interpret these findings in terms of the unique display and decoding rules of emotions in Asian contexts. In addition, the effects of expressor culture were observed only in non-pleasant emotions, but not in happiness. Finally, reaction time data revealed that identification of happiness is an automatic, holistic process, identification of non-pleasant emotions is a relatively capacity-consuming, piecemeal process.

Neurulation in the cranial region – normal and abnormal

Cranial neurulation is the embryonic process responsible for formation of the brain primordium. In the mouse embryo, cranial neurulation is a piecemeal process with several initiation sites and two neuropores. Variation in the pattern of cranial neurulation occurs in different mouse strains, and a simpler version of this morphogenetic scheme has been described in human embryos. Exencephaly is more common in females than in males, an unexplained phenomenon seen in both mice and humans. As the cranial neural tube closes, a critical morphogenetic event is the formation of dorsolateral bending points near the neural fold tips, which enables subsequent midline fusion of the neural folds. Many mutant and gene-targeted mouse strains develop cranial neural tube defects, and analysis of the underlying molecular defects identifies several requirements for normal dorsolateral bending. These include a functional actin cytoskeleton, emigration of the cranial neural crest, spatio-temporally regulated apoptosis, and a balance between cell proliferation and the onset of neuronal differentiation. A small number of mouse mutants exhibit craniorachischisis, a combined brain and spine neurulation defect. Recent studies show that disturbance of a single molecular signalling cascade, the planar cell polarity pathway, is implicated in mutants with this defect.

Inverse problems: A pragmatist's approach to the recovery of information from indirect measurements

Within the class of inverse problems, it is the subclass of indirect measurement problems that characterize the nature of inverse problems that arise in applications. With very few exceptions, measurements only record some indirect aspect of the phenomenon of interest (for example, X-rays and tomographic images in medical applications; telescope images in astronomy; stereological assessment of biological structure and processes; signatures in geophysical prospecting). Even when the direct information is measured such as weight or length, it is measured as a correlation against a standard and this correlation can be quite indirect, such as the measurement of weight by the extension (compression) of a spring. The recovery of information about a phenomenon from indirect measurements is a piecemeal process. Any class of indirect measurements can only recover certain information about the phenomenon. In order to formulate realistic mathematical models that relate the indirect measurements to the specific information from the phenomenon that is to be recovered, there is a need to invoke simplifying assumptions (for example, radial or axial symmetry). The required information about the phenomenon is often only vaguely contained in the available indirect measurements, and this will be reflected in the nature of the mathematical equations which model the relationship between the indirect measurements and the phenomenon of interest. All these aspects influence how the recovery of the information can be performed. The choice of methodology is not limited. The challenge is to perform the recovery in a way that correctly reflects the underlying nature of the problem context. It is not a matter of blindly applying some form of quadratic regularization for which algorithms and packages are readily available. Though such tools are useful for initial exploratory analysis, the crucial characterization of the information to be recovered is hidden in the mathematical model that relates the indirect measurements to the phenomenon within the problem context. When recovering information from indirect measurements, the question that focuses the problem solving comes from the need for decision making to have answers to specific matters. The data available for the associated decision support will be indirect measurements of the phenomenon under investigation. As a consequence of the applications context, the recovery of information of the associated inverse problem will be constrained by practical challenges including: In a given situation, how does one decide on the indirect measurements to be performed? How are some practical people able to solve indirect measurement problems without having to perform an explicit regularization? Is there any advantage in combining different indirect measurements of the same phenomenon? What are the alternatives, when there is only a (very) limited amount of data? How does one proceed when a mathematical model is not available or is too complex to formulate? We examine, in terms of practical problems, how such challenges can be accommodated, as well as explore the wide range of mathematical matters and considerations that arise when solving inverse problems.

The Role of Salience in the Extraction of Algebraic Rules.

Recent research suggests that humans and other animals have sophisticated abilities to extract both statistical dependencies and rule-based regularities from sequences. Most of this research stresses the flexibility and generality of such processes. Here the authors take up an equally important project, namely, to explore the limits of such processes. As a case study for rule-based generalizations, the authors demonstrate that only repetition-based structures with repetitions at the edges of sequences (e.g., ABCDEFF but not ABCDDEF) can be reliably generalized, although token repetitions can easily be discriminated at both sequence edges and middles. This finding suggests limits on rule-based sequence learning and new interpretations of earlier work alleging rule learning in infants. Rather than implementing a computerlike, formal process that operates over all patterns equally well, rule-based learning may be a highly constrained and piecemeal process driven by perceptual primitives--specialized type operations that are highly sensitive to perceptual factors.

Autism-related language, personality, and cognition in people with absolute pitch: results of a preliminary study.

Reports of a relatively high prevalence of absolute pitch (AP) in autistic disorder suggest that AP is associated with some of the distinctive cognitive and social characteristics seen in autism spectrum disorders. Accordingly we examined cognition, personality, social behavior, and language in 13 musicians with strictly defined AP (APS) and 33 musician controls (MC) without AP using standardized interviews and tests previously applied to identify the broad autism phenotype seen in the relatives of autistic probands. These included the Pragmatic Rating Scale (PRS) (social aspects of language) the Personality Assessment Schedule (PAS) (rigidity, aloofness, anxiety/worry, hypersensitivity), and WAIS performance subtests (PIQ). On the basis of their behavior in the interviews, subjects were classified as socially eccentric, somewhat eccentric, or not eccentric. Forty-six percent of the APS, but only 15% of the MC, were classified as socially eccentric (p < .03). APS but not MC showed higher scores on block design than on the other PIQ tests (p < .06), a PIQ pattern seen in autism spectrum disorders. Although APS and MC did not differ significantly on other measures it is of note that APS mean scores on the PRS and PAS (5.69, 4.92) were almost twice as high as those for the MC (3.03, 2.45). Thus, musicians with AP show some of the personality, language, and cognitive features associated with autism. Piecemeal information processing, of which AP is an extreme and rare example, is characteristic of autism and may be associated as well with subclinical variants in language and behavior. We speculate that the gene or genes that underlie AP may be among the genes that contribute to autism.

Who exhibits more stereotypical thinking? The effect of need and ability to achieve cognitive structure on stereotyping

Need for cognitive structure (NCS) could affect stereotypical thinking. In the present paper, it is suggested that the effect of NCS on stereotyping is moderated by the ability to achieve cognitive structure (AACS). NCS is defined as the preference to use cognitive structuring (versus piecemeal processing) as a way to achieve certainty. AACS is defined as the extent to which individuals are able to use information processing processes (cognitive structuring or piecemeal) consistent with their level of NCS. Two studies were conducted to examine this hypothesis. The first examined the effect of NCS and AACS on negative stereotypes held by Israelis towards Palestinians. The second examined the effect of NCS and AACS on perceived in‐group (psychology students) and out‐group (engineering students) variability. Results of both studies showed that for high‐AACS participants, higher NCS was associated with greater stereotypical thinking, whereas for low‐AACS participants, higher NCS was associated with less stereotyping. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Facial Identity and Facial Emotions: Speed, Accuracy, and Processing Strategies in Children and Adults

As yet, nearly all studies in face and facial affect recognition typically provide only data on the accuracy of processing, invariably also in the absence of reference data on information processing. In this study, accuracy and speed of abstract visuo-spatial processing, face recognition, and facial emotion recognition were investigated in normal school children (7–10 years) and adults (25±4 years). In the age range of 7–10 years, accuracy of facial processing hardly increased, while speed did substantially increase with age. Adults, however, were substantially more accurate and faster than children. Differences between facial and abstract information processing were related to type of processing strategy, that is, configural or holistic processing versus featural or piecemeal processing. Improvement in task performance with age is discussed in terms of an enhanced efficiency of the configural organization of facial knowledge (facial information processing tasks), together with a further increase in processing capacity (all tasks). The differential developmental course of speed and accuracy levels indicates that speed is a more sensitive measure when children get older. Moreover, it also suggests that speed of performance, in addition to accuracy, might be successfully used in the assessment of clinical deficits, as has recently been demonstrated in children with autistic disorders of social contact.

The African Union—A New Dawn for Africa?

In March 2001 the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), meeting in extraordinary session in Sirte, Libya declared the establishment of a new pan-African body, the African Union (Union).1The Constitutive Act (Act) of the Union entered into force on 26 May 20012and in due course this new institution will replace the OAU.3The Union, the brainchild of Libyan President Qaddafi, and modeled on the European Union, is the culmination of the OAU's piecemeal process of political cooperation and economic integration. It is designed to provide Africa with the legal and institutional framework to confront the twin challenges of the post-Cold War age and globalisation.

Alternative dispute resolution and the protection of natural areas in Ontario, Canada

In this paper we ask, Can alternative dispute resolution (ADR) settle land use disputes between developers and interest groups and still produce “environmentally-sound” decisions? We selected six Canadian environmental mediation/negotiation cases in Ontario, where proposed residential developments were perceived to threaten natural areas, and interviewed proponents, intervenors and consultants after ADR resolution. We measured success in protecting ecological integrity at each site through comparison with a hypothetical “perfect” case. Process and outcome criteria tested how each agreement had mitigated damage and maintained or enhanced ecological integrity. Five of six cases successfully met an arbitrary minimum of 50% of both process and outcome criteria. Cases involving the Ontario provincial government were more successful than those with private developers, and environmental groups relying on disinterested environmental principle were more successful than residents’ associations that were hampered by others’ perceptions of “Not in My Backyard ” (NIMBY) syndrome. Participation by parties hostile to or unfamiliar with ADR hampered the process, and mediators were not perceived as critical to success. Thus, whether parties can solve environmental problems with ADR depends on their perspectives on environmental disputes, and stakeholders must share information openly and indicate their desire for consensus-based decisions. Finally, stakeholders must have access to current scientific information. Among its limitations, ADR is not guaranteed to resolve a dispute, nor can it succeed without voluntary participation by all parties. Third, ADR is effective only when all stakeholders feel that negotiation is useful. Finally, ADR is a reactionary, piecemeal process, and is therefore inefficient in protecting natural areas in a regional context.

Exploring the Cognitive Phenotype of Autism: Weak “Central Coherence” in Parents and Siblings of Children with Autism: I. Experimental Tests

Previous twin and family studies have indicated that there are strong genetic influences in the etiology of autism, and provide support for the notion of a broader phenotype in first-degree relatives. The present study explored this phenotype in terms of one current cognitive theory of autism. Parents and brothers of boys with autism, boys with dyslexia, and normal boys were given tests of "central coherence", on which children with autism perform unusually well due to an information-processing bias favouring part/detail processing over processing of wholes/meaning. Results indicated that fathers of boys with autism, as a group, showed piecemeal processing across four tests of central coherence. This was not true for any other group. These findings raise the possibility that the broader autism phenotype may include a "cognitive style" (weak central coherence) that can confer information-processing advantages.

Exploring the Cognitive Phenotype of Autism: Weak “Central Coherence” in Parents and Siblings of Children with Autism: II. Real‐life Skills and Preferences

Information on everyday life activities and preferences in both social and nonsocial domains was obtained from parents and children who had taken part in an experimental study of central coherence. Comparisons were made between parents who had a son with autism, parents with a dyslexic son, and families without a history of developmental disorder, as well as the male siblings in these families. Data on everyday preferences and abilities were elicited by means of an experimental questionnaire. Significant group differences in social and nonsocial preferences were found, suggesting that some parents showed similarities with their son with autism, in preference for nonsocial activities and ability in detail-focused processing. A similar experimental questionnaire, completed by parents on behalf of their sons, discriminated between autism group probands and controls, but did not differentiate sibling groups. The relevance of the nonsocial items to central coherence is discussed in the light of the findings in Part I: autism parents who reported more autism-related nonsocial (but not social) preferences, tended to show a piecemeal processing style on the experimental tasks.

Cognitive styles in high-functioning adolescents with autistic disorder.

This study addressed the operationalization, the identification, and the prevalence of weak central coherence and poor cognitive shifting in 35 high-functioning adolescents with autism. Central coherence and cognitive shifting were represented by two factors in a factor analysis, each reflecting a constituent aspect of the domain in question. With regard to central coherence, these aspects were the ability of piecemeal processing and the ability to process meaning. The aspects related to cognitive shifting concerned internally and externally controlled shifting. Weak central coherence and poor cognitive shifting did not appear to be related to measures of symptom severity, social understanding, and social competence. Both these cognitive styles did not appear to be universal to autism. In our sample, weak central coherence and poor cognitive shifting were found to be significantly more common than in normative control subjects.

Featural and configurational processes in the recognition of faces of different familiarity.

Previous research suggests that face recognition may involve both configurational and piecemeal (featural) processing. To explore the relationship between these processing modes, we examined the patterns of recognition impairment produced by blurring, inversion, and scrambling, both singly and in various combinations. Two tasks were used: recognition of unfamiliar faces (seen once before) and recognition of highly familiar faces (celebrities). The results provide further support for a configurational-featural distinction. Recognition performance remained well above chance if faces were blurred, scrambled, inverted, or simultaneously inverted and scrambled: each of these manipulations disrupts either configurational or piecemeal processing, leaving the other mode available as a route to recognition. However, blurred/scrambled and blurred/inverted faces were recognised at or near chance levels, presumably because both configurational processing and featural processing were disrupted. Similar patterns of effects were found for both familiar and unfamiliar faces, suggesting that the relationship between configurational and featural processing is qualitatively similar in both cases.

Global product stereotypes and heuristic processing: The impact of ambient task complexity

This study examines consumer information processing heuristics in the context of ambient task complexity. Individual consumers are often called upon to make evaluations of product and advertising stimuli while ambient events not directly related to the purchase at hand may enter the evaluative process and influence the way evaluations are made. Subjects facing a more complex task due to ambient events were found to evaluate the target stimulus in a way that was more consistent with category-based rather than piecemeal processing. Additionally, the findings provide considerable evidence for stereotype-driven evaluations and processing of attribute information. The theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

An Examination Of Categorisation And Stereotyping Heuristics In Global Product Evaluations

This research investigates COO effects in the context of the categorisation paradigm and stereotyping. When the evaluative implications of product attribute information were largely consistent with category-triggered COO affect, subjects were more likely to engage in category-based rather than piecemeal processing. The results also provided considerable support for direct and biased evidence processing often examined within the realm of stereotyping tendencies. The theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.

Just Modeling Through: A Rough Guide to Modeling

Skill in modeling is one of the keys to success in OR/MS practice. This has been recognized for many years, but we often give it only lip service. Models are used in many ways in OR/MS practice. A few simple principles of modeling may be useful. The six principles discussed here cover simplicity versus complexity; model development as a gradual, almost piecemeal process; dividing larger models into smaller components; using analogies; proper uses of data; and finally the way in which the modeling process can seem chaotic. Others may wish to comment on these principles and add their own.

Inversion effect for faces in split-brain monkeys

Inverting facial stimuli disrupts recognition in human subjects more severely than does inversion of other objects normally seen upright. Furthermore, this disruption affects mechanisms in the right hemisphere, which is the hemisphere preeminent for face processing, more than mechanisms in the left. To determine the extent of these effects in monkeys we retrained each hemisphere of 20 split-brain rhesus monkeys on eight upright facial discriminations they had previously learned. As a group, the monkeys again performed better with the right hemisphere than with the left in remembering these problems, confirming the right hemispheric advantage previously found. As soon as a particular discrimination was relearned to criterion with one hemisphere, the same discrimination was presented inverted. The monkeys learned the inverted facial discriminations with each hemisphere but as a group no longer showed a right hemispheric advantage. Thus, the monkeys, like people, show a greater inversion effect for faces with the right hemisphere than with the left. This result indicates that monkeys normally process faces configurally using holistic mechanisms in the right hemisphere but, when required by the nature of the stimuli, can utilize piecemeal processing of specific features with either hemisphere.

Authority and the sacred: aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman world

The Christianisation of the Roman world lies at the root of modern Europe, yet at the time it was a tentative and piecemeal process. Peter Brown's fascinating study examines the factors which proved decisive and the compromises which made the emergence of the Christian 'thought world' possible: how the the old gods of the Roman Empire could be reinterpreted as symbols to further the message of the Church. Peter Brown also shows how Christian holy men were less representative of a triumphant faith than negotiators of a working compromise between the new faith and traditional ways of dealing with the supernatural worlds.

Infrared Dichroism, Chain Flattening, and the Bound Fraction Histogram in Adsorbed Poly(methyl methacrylate) Layers

We examine the distribution of adsorption substates, in contrast to their average. The distribution of infrared dichroism and bound fraction were determined in a model system (poly(methyl methacrylate) adsorbed chiefly by hydrogen bonding onto oxidized silicon from CCl 4 ). The method was infrared spectroscopy in attenuated total reflection (FTIR-ATR). From the surface excess (Γ), dichroic ratio (D zx ), and fraction of carbonyl groups bound to the surface (p), a broad distribution of conformations was found to prevail, from severely flattened (p 0.5 and D zx << 1 for the asymmetric methyl stretch) to nearly solution-like (p 0.1 and D zx 1 for the asymmetric methyl stretch). The extent of flattening depended mainly on the number of adsorption sites available to each chain at the time it deposited to the surface ; chains that adsorbed later, finding fewer and fewer surface sites available, then became attached by fewer and fewer segments. This in turn implied that chains which arrived initially had the center-of-mass closer to the solid surface than those which arrived later. Conformational rearrangements were not observed on the experimental time scale of 3 h ; this allowed determination of the distribution of conformational substates by subtraction of sequentially-acquired infrared spectra. The broad and asymmetric distribution of conformational substates appeared to originate, predictably, from the piecemeal process by which the surface was coated. It presents analogies with issues of random sequential adsorption.