Piece Of Gum Research Articles

Gum chewing as an adjunct to use of medications

Gum chewing as an adjunct to use of medications

The Effect of Caffeine Supplementation on Performance in the Standing Shot Put Throw

BACKGROUND: Caffeine has been shown to have ergogenic effects on both aerobic and anaerobic activities. These ergogenic effects have been demonstrated in activities that range from distance running to sprint cycling. However, the possible ergogenic effects of caffeine on the shot put event have not been investigated. PURPOSE: The purpose of the present investigation was to determine if caffeine has ergogenic effects on performance in the shot put event. METHODS: A double-blinded, counterbalanced, within subjects design was used to investigate the ergogenic effects of caffeine on the shot put. Four male (age: 20.5±2.1 yrs, height: 1.82 ± 0.07m, weight: 115.68 ± 13.03kg) and five female (age: 19.6 ± 1.9yrs, height: 1.73 ± 0.07m, weight: 98.72 ± 28.47kg) college shot putters participated in the study. Prior to participating, participants were asked about caffeine usage. The participants reported an average daily caffeine intake of (73 ± 97mg). Prior to each series of measured throws, participants received either a piece of gum designed to deliver 100mg of caffeine in a buccal manner (CAFF), or a placebo gum (PL). The gum was chewed for 5 min then discarded. The participants then completed a series of 5 warm-up throws, followed by 6 attempts with a shot put (16lbs for males, 4kg for females) that were measured for distance. RESULTS: An ANOVA (treatment x throw) was also performed to compare performance between the CAFF and PL treatments over the six measured attempts. A significant difference (treatment x throw) was found (p<0.05) indicating that the CAFF treatment produced better performance over the course of the six attempts. Paired samples t-tests were performed to compare the first attempt between the CAFF treatment (9.63±1.69 meters) and the PL treatment (9.05±1.71 meters). A significant increase in performance was found in the CAFF treatment (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Caffeine increased the performance of shot putters over the course of six attempts. This finding suggests to coaches and athletes involved in the event, that low dose caffeine (100mg) is an effective ergogenic aid.

Chewing Gum Containing Citric Acid Reduces the Burden of Periodontal Pathogens

Objective: In a preliminary study, we noted that citric acid has the potency to induce human beta defensins (hBD-2) in salivary secretions. As hBDs are thought to ameliorate periodontal disease by suppressing key periodontal pathogens we developed a citric acid-containing chewing gum (CA-gum) to test this hypothesis. Here we report, the effect of CA-gum on three major periodontal pathogens Prevotella intermedia (Pi), Tannerella forsythia (Tf), Treponema denti- cola (Td) and Fusobacterium species (Fb). Methods: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with 61 individuals, was conducted over 14 days. Each subject was allowed to chew CA-gum (31 subjects) or placebo gum (30 subjects) at irregular intervals, but was instructed to eat at least three pieces of gum a day. None had active caries, symptoms of gingivitis or periodontal disease, smoking history, or concurrent medication. To determine the levels of oral carriage of the putative pathogens, saliva was collected from each subject by paraffin chewing in a standard manner and, the number of total cultivative microorganisms (CFUs) determined. Five key periodontal pathogens, Pg, Pi, Tf, Td and Fb present in saliva were determined quantitatively using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (BML Inc., Saitama, JAPAN). Results: Compared with the placebo chewing gum group the CA-gum group had significantly lower levels of Prevotella intermedia, Tannerella forsythia, and Fusobacterium spp. in their saliva. (Wilcoxon t-test; p 0.05).

Treatment of Tobacco Dependence

Cigarette smoking continues to cause substantial death and disability, but more than 1 in 5 adults smoke despite the desire among most smokers to stop and the availability of effective treatments. A systematic process to identify all smokers is crucial. Because tobacco dependence is characterized by relapses and remissions, clinicians should be ready to engage smokers and reengage relapsed smokers with options for new medication strategies and additional counseling resources.

Terahertz movies of internal transmission images

Recently terahertz imaging using two-dimensional E-O sampling has attracted much interest because it can acquire real-time terahertz images unlike a conventional raster scan method. We are applying this technique to the non-destructive measurement of opaque materials in a visible range. We acquired 10-fps consecutive terahertz transmission images: dripping water in a plastic pipe and metal included in a piece of gum. Since the obtained images were confirmed to be proportional to the electric field of the terahertz waves, the images in the present paper are useful for quantitative analysis. We also showed the signal-to-noise ratio of the terahertz images.

Use of more nicotine lozenges leads to better success in quitting smoking

The finding that smokers who used more pieces of nicotine gum achieved better treatment outcomes has been interpreted to indicate that the use of more pieces of gum leads to better treatment outcomes. However, these correlational findings are subject to at least three alternate explanations: (1) reverse causation; (2) a confounding third variable; or (3) behavioral processes. We tested these alternative explanations in secondary analyses of data from a clinical trial of nicotine lozenges. Subjects (n = 1030) who quit smoking for at least 2 weeks in a placebo-controlled trial of nicotine lozenges were studied. Lozenge use was recorded daily; outcome was assessed as carbon monoxide (CO)-verified 28-day continuous abstinence at 6 weeks. To refute the reverse causation hypothesis we analyzed data on compliance during a period when subjects were abstinent: high use of active lozenge was associated with greater success; for each additional lozenge used, the odds of success increased by 10%. The third variable and behavioral processes hypotheses both predict that high lozenge use will be associated with improved outcomes even in the placebo condition. However, our analyses showed that this was not the case. Further, greater use of lozenges increased the active-placebo difference, as would be expected under a pharmacological explanation of compliance effects. The analyses rebut the alternative explanations, and suggest that use of more nicotine lozenges is causally associated with better quit rates.

Multicenter Randomized Trial of Chewing Gum For Preventing Oral Mucositis in Children Receiving Chemotherapy

The properties of saliva led us to hypothesize that the salivary flow increase induced by gum chewing might protect the oral mucosa from lesions due to cancer chemotherapy. We conducted a multicenter randomized trial to evaluate the efficacy of chewing gum in preventing oral mucositis in 145 children receiving chemotherapy regimens expected to induce WHO grade 3-4 oral mucositis in at least 30% of patients. Patients were allocated at random to standard oral care with or without 5 gum pieces per day. No overall reduction in severe oral mucositis occurred in the gum arm (51%) compared with the standard arm (44%). VIDE, COPADM, and multidrug intensive chemotherapy caused severe oral mucositis in 75% of patients in both arms. In patients receiving less toxic regimens, a decrease in WHO grade 1-4 oral mucositis was noted in the gum arm compared with the standard arm (49% vs. 72%, P=0.03). In the multivariate analysis, the risk of oral mucositis was related only to the type of chemotherapy regimen, suggesting that further strategies for preventing oral mucositis could be mainly based on these criteria.

Unilateral posterior crossbite and mastication

Objective This study was designed to characterize masticatory-cycle morphology, and distance of the contact glide in the closing masticatory stroke, in adult subjects with uncorrected unilateral posterior crossbite (UPXB), comparing the results obtained with those obtained in a parallel group of normal subjects. Study design Mandibular movements (masticatory movements and laterality movements with dental contact) were registered using a gnathograph (MK-6I Diagnostic System) during unilateral chewing of a piece of gum. Traces were recorded on the crossbite and non-crossbite sides in the crossbite group, and likewise on both sides in the non-crossbite group. Results Mean contact glide distance on the crossbite side in the UPXB group was significantly lower than in the control group ( p < 0.001), and mean contact glide distance on the non-crossbite side in the UPXB group was significantly lower than in the control group ( p = 0.042). Cycle morphology was abnormal during chewing on the crossbite side, with the frequency distribution of cycle types differing significantly from that for the noncrossbite side and that for the control group ( p < 0.001). Conclusions Patients with crossbite showed alterations in both contact glide distances and masticatory cycle morphology. These alterations are probably adaptive responses allowing maintenance of adequate masticatory function despite the crossbite.

Chewing chitosan-containing gum effectively inhibits the growth of cariogenic bacteria

Objective We have already reported that chitosan inhibited the growth of cariogenic bacteria in vitro. This study was designed to evaluate whether chewing gum, containing chitosan, can effectively suppressed the growth of oral bacteria (total bacteria, total Streptococci, mutans streptococci (MS)) in saliva. Methods Fifty healthy subjects, ranging in age from 19 to 32 years, were recruited from among the staff and students of Nagasaki University School of Dentistry. For the slab of gum study, the subjects chewed gum for 5 min and then rested for 5 min. Each subject chewed a total of eight pieces of gum, which was either supplemented with or without chitosan, for a total of 80 min. Two different types of gums were examined with at least 1 week as a rest period in between treatments. This in vivo study was carried out by the double blind comparison test. Results The amount of oral bacteria was found to significantly decrease in the chitosan group. Especially, the number of MS were maintained at about a 20% level in comparison to that before gum chewing, even at 1 h after gum chewing. Conclusion These findings suggest that a supplementation of chitosan to gum is an effective method for controlling the number of cariogenic bacteria in situations where it is difficult to brush one's teeth, such as when an individual is away from home all day or participating in outdoor training.

Linear response of mutans streptococci to increasing frequency of xylitol chewing gum use: a randomized controlled trial [ISRCTN43479664

BackgroundXylitol is a naturally occurring sugar substitute that has been shown to reduce the level of mutans streptococci in plaque and saliva and to reduce tooth decay. It has been suggested that the degree of reduction is dependent on both the amount and the frequency of xylitol consumption. For xylitol to be successfully and cost-effectively used in public health prevention strategies dosing and frequency guidelines should be established. This study determined the reduction in mutans streptococci levels in plaque and unstimulated saliva to increasing frequency of xylitol gum use at a fixed total daily dose of 10.32 g over five weeks.MethodsParticipants (n = 132) were randomized to either active groups (10.32 g xylitol/day) or a placebo control (9.828 g sorbitol and 0.7 g maltitol/day). All groups chewed 12 pieces of gum per day. The control group chewed 4 times/day and active groups chewed xylitol gum at a frequency of 2 times/day, 3 times/day, or 4 times/day. The 12 gum pieces were evenly divided into the frequency assigned to each group. Plaque and unstimulated saliva samples were taken at baseline and five-weeks and were cultured on modified Mitis Salivarius agar for mutans streptococci enumeration.ResultsThere were no significant differences in mutans streptococci level among the groups at baseline. At five-weeks, mutans streptococci levels in plaque and unstimulated saliva showed a linear reduction with increasing frequency of xylitol chewing gum use at the constant daily dose. Although the difference observed for the group that chewed xylitol 2 times/day was consistent with the linear model, the difference was not significant.ConclusionThere was a linear reduction in mutans streptococci levels in plaque and saliva with increasing frequency of xylitol gum use at a constant daily dose. Reduction at a consumption frequency of 2 times per day was small and consistent with the linear-response line but was not statistically significant.

S.25.03 Smoking cessation treatment in patients with depression: outcomes, relapse vulnerability factors, and targeted inventions

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a history of depression in female smokers (age 18–65) who did not self-report any current depression was associated with adherence to a multisession, multicomponent smoking-cessation program. Participants in a 13-week cognitive-behavioral group program plus random assignment to nicotine gum, appetite suppressant gum, or placebo chewing gum were grouped by depressive-history and compared on attendance, average expired carbon monoxide after planned cessation, and number of pieces of gum chewed. No significant differences between the depressive history (yes/no) subgroups were found on any of the three measures of adherence. The power to detect a significant difference (α = 0.05) was calculated to be 0.89. Group cognitive-behavioral treatment appears to be the basis of an effective smoking-cessation program for women with a history of depression who are not currently depressed.

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Background An essential component of evaluating potential modified risk tobacco products is to determine how consumers use the product and resulting effects on biomarkers of toxicant exposure. Study design Cigarette smokers (n=391) recruited in Minnesota and Oregon were randomised to either snus or 4 mg nicotine gum for 12 weeks. Participants were instructed to completely switch from cigarettes to these products. Urine samples were collected to analyse for carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamine metabolites (4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol and N′-nitrosonornicotine and their glucuronides) and nicotine metabolites (total cotinine and nicotine equivalents) levels. Results Of the 391 participants randomised, 52.9% were male, the mean±SD age was 43.9±12.5 years, baseline number of cigarettes/day was 18.0±6.5 and Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence score was 5.1±2.0. The mean±SD number of snus pouches used/week at week 6 prior to tapering was 39.1±24.0 and nicotine gum pieces used was 37.6±26.3. Dual use of cigarettes and these products were observed in 52.9% and 58.2% of those assigned to snus and nicotine gum, respectively, at week 12. The end of treatment biochemically verified (carbon monoxide, CO Conclusions Snus performed similarly to nicotine gum in cigarette smokers who were interested in completely switching to these products, but was associated with less satisfaction and greater toxicant exposure than nicotine gum. Trial registration number NCT: 00710034.

The release of vitamin C from chewing gum and its effects on supragingival calculus formation

The aims of this study were to evaluate (i): whether vitamin C in chewing gum, alone or in combination with carbamide, influences calculus formation, and (ii) whether carbamide affects the release, stability and uptake of vitamin C in a chewing gum. In two test series (Series I and II), 30 subjects, all calculus formers, participated. They were instructed to chew on five (Series I) or 10 (Series II) pieces of gum per day for a period of 3 months. The chewing gums were: vitamin C (60 mg, Series I), non-vitamin C (Series I) and vitamin C + carbamide (30 mg + 30 mg, Series II). In both series, no gum was used as a negative control. Calculus formation was scored on three lingual sites on the six anterior mandibular teeth according to the Volpe-Manhold index. The effect on plaque and gingivitis was also determined. A significant reduction in the total calculus score was observed after the use of vitamin C (33%) and vitamin C + carbamide (12%) gums compared with no gum use; this reduction was most pronounced in the heavy calculus formers. A reduced amount of visible plaque was also observed after use of vitamin C and non-vitamin C gum, but only the vitamin C gum reduced the number of bleeding sites (37%). In a separate study, the release, stability and uptake of vitamin C were evaluated using the iodine titration method in both saliva and urine after exposure to the following gums: vitamin C + carbamide (30 mg + 30 mg) and vitamin C (30 mg). There was no indication that carbamide affected the release, stability or uptake of vitamin C when used in a chewing gum.

Short Communication

Both nicotine and sucrose can enhance performance on cognitive tasks. However, little is known about whether nicotine and sucrose could act jointly to augment mental performance. To investigate if there is an interaction between nicotine and sucrose on cognitive behavior, performance on a continuous performance task (CPT) and a spatial memory task was examined in 14 healthy smokers after they had drunk 8 oz of either a sucrose- or aspartame-containing beverage, and then chewed a piece of gum containing either 2 mg nicotine or no nicotine. To assess changes in mood as a function of nicotine and sucrose intake, the profile of mood states (POMS) test was administered three times during each test session. Participants made significantly more correct responses and significantly fewer incorrect responses on the CPT when they received nicotine than when they received the placebo gum. Closer analysis of the data revealed that there was an interaction between sucrose consumption and nicotine intake. Nicotine increased hits and decreased misses when participants were given the sucrose-containing beverage, but not when they were given the aspartame-containing beverage. Neither nicotine nor sucrose affected spatial memory or mood across experimental sessions. However, when data were analyzed for just the first session, participants who drank the sucrose-containing beverage performed significantly better on the spatial memory task than those who drank the aspartame-containing beverage. No gender differences in the effects of nicotine or sucrose on cognitive performance were detected. The results provide support that both nicotine and sucrose have positive effects on cognitive behavior, and that under some conditions the two variables have additive effects on performance.

Chewing gum differentially affects aspects of attention in healthy subjects

In a study published previously in this journal (Wilkinson et al., 2002), the effect of chewing gum on cognitive functioning was examined. The results of this study indicated that chewing a piece of gum results in an improvement of working memory and of both immediate and delayed recall of words but not of attention. In the present study, memory and a variety of attentional functions of healthy adult participants were examined under four different conditions: no chewing, mimicking chewing movements, chewing a piece of tasteless chewing gum and chewing a piece of spearmint flavoured chewing gum. The sequence of conditions was randomised across participants. The results showed that the chewing of gum did not improve participants' memory functions. Furthermore, chewing may differentially affect specific aspects of attention. While sustained attention was improved by the chewing of gum, alertness and flexibility were adversely affected by chewing. In conclusion, claims that the chewing a gum improves cognition should be viewed with caution.

Misuse of and dependence on over-the-counter nicotine gum in a volunteer sample.

To estimate the amount of misuse of and dependence on nicotine gum in an over-the-counter (OTC) setting, we conducted two telephone surveys of smokers recruited by newspaper ads. Study 1 surveyed 266 U.S. ever-smokers using OTC gum to determine the percentage who used the gum for noncessation reasons or used gum and cigarettes concurrently. In Study 1, 6% initially purchased nicotine gum to reduce smoking and 1% to avoid smoking restrictions. At the time of interview, 35% chewed gum and smoked cigarettes concurrently with a mean of six cigarettes per day and 15 mg/day of nicotine from gum. Among long-term users (>/=90 days), 20% attributed their use to addiction. To determine what proportion of those reporting addiction would meet DSM-IV or ICD-10 criteria for dependence, Study 2 surveyed 100 current and ex-smokers who reported addiction to OTC nicotine gum. In these gum users, 66% met DSM-IV and 74% met ICD-10 criteria for dependence. Combining the results of Studies 1 and 2 with other data suggests very few gum users develop dependence on the gum. We conclude (a) very few people use nicotine gum for noncessation reasons, (b) concurrent use of gum and cigarettes is common but involves a small number of cigarettes and pieces of gum per day, and (c) the incidence of dependence on OTC nicotine gum is very small.

Patterns of over-the-counter nicotine gum use: persistent use and concurrent smoking.

To examine the occurrence of persistent use (i.e. use beyond 12 weeks) and concurrent use of nicotine gum with cigarettes among consumers who purchase nicotine gum over-the-counter (OTC). Assessment of gum use was conducted in the context of a smoking cessation trial among smokers who purchased Nicorette gum and enrolled in the optional Committed Quitters smoking cessation program. Eligible participants were contacted by telephone 6 weeks and 12 weeks following their self-selected target quit date. Those who reported gum use at 12 weeks were contacted again at week 24. A total of 2655 current smokers who purchased nicotine gum and enrolled in a clinical efficacy trial of the Committed Quitters program. Detailed information on smoking and gum use, including frequency of use, amount used and reasons for use was obtained at each of the three follow-up assessments. At the 24-week assessment, 6% of participants reported current use of nicotine gum (i.e. persistent use). Those engaging in persistent use averaged 4.7 (SD = 2.5) days of gum use per week and 3.2 (SD = 3.5) pieces of gum per day. Sixty-six per cent of persistent users reported at week 24 that they were not currently smoking, and 67% of persistent users reported they were using gum to establish or maintain abstinence. At the 6-, 12- and 24-week assessments, 14%, 10% and 2% of participants, respectively, reported current use of nicotine gum and current cigarette smoking (i.e. concurrent users). Those concurrent users reported at the 12-week follow-up that they did so an average of 4.4 (SD = 2.1) days per week, that they chewed an average of 2.6 (SD = 3.5) pieces of nicotine gum per day and that they smoked an average of 8.7 (SD = 8.6) cigarettes per day. Extended use of nicotine gum is rare. Concurrent use with cigarettes is uncommon. In both cases, the amount of gum use is small. OTC marketing of nicotine gum does not appear to have increased use contrary to labeling nor resulted in patterns of use that should warrant clinical or public health concerns.

Antimicrobial chewing gum for the elderly in residential homes

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the attitudes of elderly residents to using an antimicrobial chewing gum as an aid to oral health, and the opinion of their carers on such a procedure. Design A cross-sectional, multi-centre survey using a structured interview/questionnaire conducted with elderly residents and their carers. Setting In January 1998, 9 residential/nursing homes were chosen at random from all the homes in West Hertfordshire, 207 residents were asked to chew two pieces of gum twice daily for 7 days. Subjects The participants, 148 women and 59 men, were aged between 53–100 years (mean age 82.23 ± 9.62 years). 47 carers, all female, were involved in distributing and collecting the gum. Results 122 residents (58.9%) were edentulous and 85 (41%) of the participants were partially dentate. Of those with teeth 23 (27%) had 21 teeth or more. 73 (35.2%) residents found that chewing the gum was difficult with 37 (17.9%) of this group being unable to chew (P < 0.0001 for those residents with no teeth/dentures or dentures unopposed by teeth or other dentures). 32 (18.6%) subjects disliked the flavour of the gum. Of the 170 residents who chewed the gum 99 (57.2%) found it reduced oral dryness and 78 (45.1%) reported it made their mouth feel healthy. 34 (53.6%) of the dentate and 47 (40.9%) of the edentate residents wished to keep using the gum (P < 0.05). 35 (74.5%) of the carers found it easy to distribute the gum and 29 (61.7%) thought that chewing gum was an acceptable method of maintaining oral health for residents. Conclusion The antimicrobial gum investigated in this study was acceptable to many elderly occupants and their carers, significantly improving perceived oral health and oral dryness of residents.

Chewing gum--facts and fiction: a review of gum-chewing and oral health.

The world market for chewing gum is estimated to be 560,000 tons per year, representing approximately US $5 billion. Some 374 billion pieces of chewing gum are sold worldwide every year, representing 187 billion hours of gum-chewing if each piece of gum is chewed for 30 minutes. Chewing gum can thus be expected to have an influence on oral health. The labeling of sugar-substituted chewing gum as "safe for teeth" or "tooth-friendly" has been proven beneficial to the informed consumer. Such claims are allowed for products having been shown in vivo not to depress plaque pH below 5.7, neither during nor for 30 minutes after the consumption. However, various chewing gum manufacturers have recently begun to make distinct health promotion claims, suggesting, e.g., reparative action or substitution for mechanical hygiene. The aim of this critical review--covering the effects of the physical properties of chewing gum and those of different ingredients both of conventional and of functional chewing gum--is to provide a set of guidelines for the interpretation of such claims and to assist oral health care professionals in counseling patients.

The relationship between a history of depression and adherence to a multicomponent smoking-cessation program

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a history of depression in female smokers (age 18–65) who did not self-report any current depression was associated with adherence to a multisession, multicomponent smoking-cessation program. Participants in a 13-week cognitive-behavioral group program plus random assignment to nicotine gum, appetite suppressant gum, or placebo chewing gum were grouped by depressive-history and compared on attendance, average expired carbon monoxide after planned cessation, and number of pieces of gum chewed. No significant differences between the depressive history (yes/no) subgroups were found on any of the three measures of adherence. The power to detect a significant difference ( α = 0.05) was calculated to be 0.89. Group cognitive-behavioral treatment appears to be the basis of an effective smoking-cessation program for women with a history of depression who are not currently depressed.