Picture-word Interference Research Articles

Resolving semantic interference during word production requires central attention.

The semantic picture-word interference task has been used to diagnose how speakers resolve competition while selecting words for production. The attentional demands of this resolution process were assessed in 2 dual-task experiments (tone classification followed by picture naming). In Experiment 1, when pictures and distractor words were presented simultaneously, semantic interference was not observed when tasks maximally overlapped. This replicates a key finding from the literature that suggested that semantic picture-word interference does not require capacity-limited central attentional resources and occurs prior to lexical selection, an interpretation that runs counter to the claims of all major theories of word production. In another Experiment 1 condition, when distractors were presented 250 ms after pictures, interference emerged when tasks maximally overlapped. Together, these findings support an account in which interference resolution and lexical selection both require central resources, but the activation of lexical representations from written words does not. Subsequent analysis revealed that discrepant results obtained in previous replication attempts may be attributable to differences in phonological (ir)regularity between languages. In Experiment 2, degree of semantic interference was manipulated using the cumulative semantic interference paradigm. Interference was observed regardless of task overlap, confirming that lexical selection requires central resources. Together, these findings indicate that a lexical selection locus of semantic picture-word interference-and models of word production that assume such a locus-may be retained.

Semantic interference in language production is due to graded similarity, not response relevance

There is an ongoing debate on the question whether semantic interference effects in language production reflect competitive processes at the level of lexical selection or whether they reflect a post-lexical bottleneck, occupied in particular by response-relevant distractor words. To disentangle item-inherent categorical relatedness and task-related response relevance effects, we combined the picture–word interference task with the conditional naming paradigm in an orthogonal design, varying categorical relatedness and task-related response relevance independent of each other. Participants were instructed to name only objects that are typically seen in or on the water (e.g. canoe) and refrain from naming objects that are typically located outside the water (e.g. bike), and vice versa. Semantic relatedness and the response relevance of superimposed distractor words were manipulated orthogonally. The pattern of results revealed no evidence for response relevance as a major source of semantic interference effects in the PWI paradigm. In contrast, our data demonstrate that semantic similarity beyond categorical relations is critical for interference effects to be observed. Together, these findings provide support for the assumption that lexical selection is competitive and that semantic interference effects in the PWI paradigm reflect this competition.

Relative speed of processing affects interference in Stroop and picture–word interference paradigms: evidence from the distractor frequency effect

The Stroop and picture–word interference (PWI) paradigms play a pivotal role in theorising about cognitive processes in general, and language production in particular. A common assumption is that the same mechanisms underlie performance in these two paradigms. Despite this assumption there exist empirical discrepancies. Here we focused on providing a unifying account for the contrasting effects of distractor word frequency in the two paradigms. In four experiments, we addressed whether the contrast is due to inherent design differences between the two paradigms (i.e., grammatical class, stimulus display and relative speed of processing). The results showed that the distractor frequency effect is contingent upon the overall naming latencies in the paradigm, suggesting that the speed of processing target colours and pictures relative to distractor words affects performance in the two tasks. The implications of these results for various models of language production are discussed.

A comparison of features and categorical cues to improve naming abilities in aphasia

Background: Evidence from the picture–word interference literature reveals that picture–word pairs bearing a non-categorical relationship (e.g., RING—expensive) will facilitate naming more than picture–word pairs bearing a categorical relationship (e.g., BRACELET—earrings). It is not known whether these differential effects would be found within a naming treatment paradigm for aphasia; however, if it is the case that one type of semantic relations will yield more robust treatment effects than another, this would provide a more efficient and effective delivery of treatment. Moreover, since semantic errors are commonly produced by individuals with aphasia, an approach which helps strengthen the semantic network will, in turn, strengthen lexical retrieval and access processes.Aim: The aim of the study was to compare a features condition, or a condition in which attributes were used, to a categorical condition, or a condition in which categorical members were used to see which would yield greater naming improvements in aphasia.Methods & Procedures: Eight individuals with aphasia were recruited for the study. A multiple-baseline design across behaviours with a crossover component was used. A categorical–features sequence was used in four participants, and a features–categorical sequence was used in four other participants. Accuracy of correct naming was calculated to determine improvements in treatment. The types of naming errors produced by individuals with positive treatment effects in the trained condition were compared to the types of naming errors produced in the control condition.Outcome & Results: A range of small to large treatment effect sizes was obtained in six of the eight participants when considering both treated conditions. However, no overwhelming advantage was found for either condition. Analyses of naming error patterns indicated increased lexical access and retrieval of the targeted picture name.Conclusions: Approaches that use cues focusing either on categorical membership or attributes will facilitate naming abilities in individuals with aphasia whether naming per cent accuracy is calculated or naming error types are tallied. However, the current results did not indicate an overwhelming advantage in using one or the other condition. Future studies should specify the type of features used (e.g., associative cues, thematic cues or perceptual cues) to determine whether such a differentiation will yield clearer differential treatment effects.

Distractor frequency effects in picture–word interference tasks with vocal and manual responses

A number of studies have recently reported that in picture–word interference (PWI) tasks, distractors with a low frequency of occurrence interfere more with picture naming than distractors with high-frequency. This finding is not straightforward to accommodate within traditional accounts of word production in which lexical access is typically conceptualised as competitive. Instead, the distractor frequency effect has been taken to support a view according to which lexical access is not competitive, and PWI effects arise at a postlexical preparation stage. Two experiments are reported which contrasted picture naming with a manual task performed on the picture name (Experiment 1: syllable judgment; Experiment 2: phoneme monitoring). In both studies, an equivalent effect of distractor frequency was observed for vocal and manual tasks, suggesting that the effect arises at a shared, abstract processing level. Consequently, the distractor frequency effect should not be interpreted as evidence for the claim that distractors have to be excluded from an articulatory response buffer before target naming can proceed.

Is lexical selection in spoken word production competitive? Introduction to the special issue on lexical competition in language production

A common assumption in research on spoken word production is that lexical selection is a competition-based process among co-activated lexical representations. This assumption of competitive lexical selection has been challenged by an alternative account, which places competition at a postlexical response selection stage. A complex pattern of empirical findings from picture-word interference and other tasks has emerged which constrains current thinking about word production. In this article we provide an overview over the main positions, empirical findings, and put the various contributions to this Special Issue into a wider context. The theoretical debate is far from closed, but it has drawn attention to some critical points that we emphasise in this Editorial: The speech production process needs an element of competition, but this competition need not necessarily take place during lexical selection. Behavioural interference effects are caused by a combination of facilitation and interference, but there is discord about the processing levels at which these mechanisms are located. Finally, we stress the necessity to use findings from different experimental paradigms for theory-building and advocate a shift from the narrow focus on the picture-word paradigm that has dominated the theoretical discussion in this Special Issue and elsewhere.

Explaining semantic facilitation and interference effects in the picture–word interference task—A rejoinder to Navarrete and Mahon (2013)

In our original article, we presented a picture–word interference experiment in which pictures had to be named with basic level names, although their naming preference was at the subordinate level (e.g., picture: rose, response: flower). We observed semantic interference for distractor words denoting the subordinate name of the picture, but no effect for distractor words denoting another subordinate name corresponding to the same basic level. We argued that this pattern is inconsistent with the assumption that semantic interference effects in picture–word interference tasks are caused by a post-lexical response-exclusion mechanism which operates over coarse semantic properties of distractor words, but that lexical competition models can account for these results. In their commentary on our article, Navarrete and Mahon come to the opposite conclusion. Here we are addressing the principal objections raised by Navarrete and Mahon, regarding the interpretation of our results. We elaborate on our view that lexical competition models can account for our data and agree that a response-exclusion mechanism, which is part of a general monitoring system and operates over fine-grained semantic information, would be compatible with our data.

Roles of Semantic Similarity and Category Size on Semantic Effect in Picture-Word Interference Paradigm

One of the workhorses in studying spoken word production is the picture-word interference paradigm (PWI). In this paradigm, speakers are instructed to ignore superimposed written distractor words while fulfilling the picture-naming task. An essential finding in picture - word interference paradigm is that people spend more time in naming pictures when distractor word is of the same category as the picture naming (semantic related word) than when the distractor is unrelated. That effect is often referred to as semantic interference effect (SIE). A reversed finding is that pictures naming latency is shorter in condition of related words than in condition of unrelated words. That effect is referred to as semantic facilitation At present, there are several theories about the nature and level of effects in picture - word interference paradigm. Lexical selection by competition hypothesis assumes that SIE is the result of competition between the representations of related distractor word and the target word and then arises at lexical level. Conceptual selection model interprets the effects as the result of competition between the representations of distractor conception and the target conception. As a result, effect should arise at level. Response selection account proposes that there is a single-channel output buffer in word production and the non –target response would occupy the buffer earlier than the target. It will take some time to exclude the non-target response from the buffer and induces SIE. So SIE arises at the post-lexical stage in word production. Each account has its experimental evidence and each has its difficulty in explaining some phenomenon. In the present study, 2 experiments were conducted to investigate the universality of current theories and to explore the roles of similarity and category size on effect in PWI. In Experiment 1, subjects were asked to name pictures accompanied by words with high similarity or words with low similarity at either basic level or at category level. Results showed a shorter picture - naming latency in condition of high similarity distractor words than in condition of low similarity words, leading to significant similarity effect. Nevertheless, similarity effect occurred in basic - level naming rather than in category - level naming and the effect was stronger for low familiar pictures than for high familiar ones. Experiment 1 also showed that latency of category - level naming was shorter than that of basic-level naming and high familiar pictures were named faster than low familiar ones. Combining previous studies, these results suggested that the intensity of relationship between pictures and words would affect the direction of effect in the PWI. Semantic facilitation effect will be foundwhen there is strong relationship between pictures and words. Otherwise, interference will be found. In Experiment 2, subjects were asked to name pictures accompanied by related words or by unrelated words. Thirty pictures from large size of category and another thirty pictures from small size of category were chosen for this experiment. Results showed that related words had rather different influences on pictures naming in different condition. They would promote pictures category-level naming, thus giving rise to facilitation effect. However, they would interference pictures basic-level naming, thus causing interference effect. Category size had a prominent influence on these effects. Semantic interference effect would be stronger for large size of category pictures in basic-level naming and facilitation effect also would be stronger for big size of category pictures in category-level naming. Combining previous studies, the experiment suggested that the range of relationship between pictures and words affects the size of effect. When there is wide range of relationship, the effect will became stronger. Otherwise, the effect will be weaker. Single current theory of effect couldn’t give a proper explanation for the findings in this study. Results in this study were discussed with reference to the equilibrium between conceptual priming and lexical competition. If the conceptual priming overweight the lexical competition, facilitation effect would be found, otherwise interference would be found.

Speech Motor Programming in Apraxia of Speech: Evidence From a Delayed Picture-Word Interference Task

Apraxia of speech (AOS) is considered a speech motor programming impairment, but the specific nature of the impairment remains a matter of debate. This study investigated 2 hypotheses about the underlying impairment in AOS framed within the Directions Into Velocities of Articulators (DIVA; Guenther, Ghosh, & Tourville, 2006) model: The retrieval hypothesis states that access to the motor programs is impaired, and the damaged programs hypothesis states that the motor programs themselves are damaged. The experiment used a delayed picture-word interference paradigm in which participants prepare their response and auditory distracters are presented with the go signal. The overlap between target and distracter words was manipulated (i.e., shared sounds or no shared sounds), and participants' reaction times (RTs) were measured. Participants included 5 speakers with AOS (4 with concomitant aphasia), 2 speakers with aphasia without AOS, and 9 age-matched control speakers. The control speakers showed no effects of distracter type or presence. The speakers with AOS had longer RTs in the distracter condition compared to the no-distracter condition. The speakers with aphasia without AOS were comparable to the control group in their overall RTs and RT pattern. Results provide preliminary support for the retrieval hypothesis, suggesting that access to motor programs may be impaired in speakers with AOS. However, the possibility that the motor programs may also be damaged cannot be ruled out.

(Ir)regularity of verbs revisited

In three experiments we explored the representation and encoding of verb regularity. Contrasting articulation latencies of present and past regular and irregular forms from paradigms consisting of regular, irregular, or hybrid verbs (regular in present, but irregular in past tense), allowed us to differentiate between affixation and stem selection processes. The analyses revealed that regular verbs in the present and past tense were produced significantly faster than all other forms. Crucially, the naming latencies of hybrid and irregular verbs did not differ from each other in both tenses. We conclude that regularity is not a property of individual verb forms, but generalizes to all forms within a paradigm. In a third, picture word interference experiment, we tested whether regularity, when not bound to individual verb forms, is represented in the form of abstract regularity nodes, as assumed for gender or conjugational class. However, the critical conditions did not exhibit the expected congruency effect. Consequently we conclude that the paradigmatic effects could be explained as a result of the complexity of lexical entries. The retrieval of a complex entry (irregular and hybrid verbs) takes longer than the retrieval of a single stem entry (regular verbs).

Semantic domain and grammatical class effects in the picture–word interference paradigm

Grammatical effects in picture–word interference experiments have been argued to reflect grammatical constraints during lexicalisation. Alternative views hold that those effects derive from the coincidence of semantic and grammatical differences between candidates. We present three experiments conducted in Spanish. Semantic relatedness between target and distracters (related or unrelated), as well as grammatical class (nouns or verbs) and semantic domain (objects or actions) of the distracters were manipulated in infinitive or inflected action naming tasks. Whereas related action-words, but not object-nouns, produced longer reaction times irrespective of their grammatical class in the infinitive condition, only related verbs slowed latencies in the inflected condition. Our results suggest that speech production relies on the exclusion of candidate responses that do not fulfil task-pertinent criteria like membership in the appropriate semantic domain or grammatical class. Taken together, these findings are explained by a response-exclusion account of speech output. This and alternative hypotheses are discussed.

Cross-Language Competition in Language Production of Chinese-as-A-Second-Language Learners

Several studies reported that there are parallel activations of both languages even when bilinguals intend to speak in only one of their two languages.So does the nontarget language compete for the selection of lexical alternatives Two types of selection mechanisms have been contrasted.According to the language-specific selection model,bilinguals can intentionally select the right alternative,thereby avoiding potential competition of both languages.In contrast,the non-specific language model allows competition for selection such that candidates across languages actively compete with alternatives in the unintended language,which will eventually inhibit them and allow accurate production to proceed.Recently there are two alternatives for the selection-by-competition model.One is the weak link hypothesis and the other is the L1-repeat-benefit hypothesis.One of the claims for cross-language competition in bilingual word production comes from findings using the picture-word interference(PWI) paradigm.The second approach involves switching the languages of production to examine the consequence of having to prepare alternatives in both languages.Whether there is cross-language competition in the language production of Chinese-as-a-second-language learners To examine the issue above,this paper completed two experiments using the new paradigm of competitor priming paradigm,which is based on implicit memory.There are 18 Chinese-as-a-second-language learners who are Russian natives in Experiment 1 and 18 learners who are Japanese natives in Experiment 2.Participants were constructed to complete overt picture naming task during the study phase and during the test phase.Naming latencies and accuracy were recorded.60 black-and-white line drawings were sampled from Zhang and Yang(2003).Both experiments were carried out on computers using E-Prime software.Participants were seated in front of a computer monitor,a button box,a microphone,and a digital recorder.SPSS 16 software was used to analyze the results data.The crucial result of this study is that there is significant facilitation only in the congruent condition.Response time was faster for the old pictures presented in the same language than those for the new pictures.Furthermore,there is no significant difference between response time for the old pictures presented in the different language and those for the new pictures.These results reveal that there is cross-language competition during word production of Chinese-as-a-second-language learners.In conclusion,the present experiment provides evidence for cross-language competition using competitor priming paradigm whether bilinguals' two languages differ in script or not.

Language processing in children with cochlear implants: A preliminary report on lexical access for production and comprehension

In this plenary paper, we present a review of language research in children with cochlear implants along with an outline of a 5-year project designed to examine the lexical access for production and recognition. The project will use auditory priming, picture naming with auditory or visual interfering stimuli (Picture–Word Interference and Picture–Picture Interference, respectively) and eye tracking paradigms to examine the roles of semantic and various phonological factors. Preliminary data are presented from auditory priming, picture–word interference and picture–picture interference tasks. The emergence of group difference is briefly discussed.

Picture novelty attenuates semantic interference and modulates concomitant neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and the locus coeruleus

Goal-directed behavior requires the ability to focus on information that is relevant to a given task and to ignore information that might interfere with it. In the Stroop task, for example, the influence of an irrelevant word needs to be overcome, which is believed to be difficult because it arises in a fast and automatic fashion, which effectively renders it very salient. Here we address the question of whether this can be counteracted by increasing the saliency of the task-relevant input, for example by modulating its relative novelty, which increases saliency in a fairly implicit and controlled fashion. To test the influence of novelty on interference processing, we employed a picture-word interference task in the fMRI scanner, in which we manipulated the novelty of the task-relevant picture. We found that picture novelty indeed reduced typical behavioral interference from incongruent words. Moreover, familiar incongruent trials were associated with activity increases in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a prime conflict-processing region, as well as in the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC), which entertains connections both to and from the ACC. The lack of analogous activations in novel incongruent trials suggests that the reduction of behavioral interference was not related to enhanced conflict-resolution processes, but rather to the automatic prioritization of novel pictures which appears to avert the influence of irrelevant words at the front end. Interestingly, activity in the ACC and LC was slightly stronger in novel congruent trials compared to incongruent ones, which may reflect increased relevance of novel stimuli when encoded in a congruent context. In summary, the present data demonstrate that stimulus novelty clearly reduces semantic interference, and highlights a complex interaction of interference and novelty processing on the neural level, including an involvement of the noradrenergic system in the processing of cognitively and perceptually salient events.

A late locus of the distractor frequency effect in picture–word interference: Evidence from event-related potentials

In this study, we investigated how people deal with irrelevant contextual information during speech production. Two main models have been proposed. WEAVER++ assumes that irrelevant information is removed from the production system by an early blocking mechanism. On the other hand, the response exclusion hypothesis assumes a blocking mechanism that operates late, after lexical selection has finished. To delineate between these models, we focused on the distractor frequency effect (i.e., longer picture naming latencies in the context of low-frequency compared to high-frequency words) and measured ERPs concurrently. Behaviorally, the distractor frequency effect was replicated. In the ERPs, three effects were found. One effect occurred very early and is interpreted as an effect of low-level visual feature processing. The two other effects occurred after lexical access and are thus in line with the response exclusion hypothesis.

Facilitation effects of gender-congruency in the production of Italian clitic pronouns

Psycholinguistic research has shown that the visibility of the gender-congruency effect in noun-phrase production is language-constrained. Those languages (e.g., German) for which the determiner may be selected as early as the gender information is available (“early-selection languages”) show the effect. Those languages (e.g., Italian) for which the selection of the determiner also depends on phonological information of the following noun (“late-selection languages”) do not show any effect. However, there may be gender-marked forms, different from determiners, that meet the requisites for early selection, independently from the language to which they belong. In the picture–word interference experiment reported here we asked whether the production of gender-marked Italian pronouns, by virtue of requiring only gender information for their selection, may be sensitive to the gender-congruency effect. Results showed that participants were faster when the distractor was gender-congruent vs. incongruent with respect to the picture name. This finding supports the view that the visibility of the gender-congruency effect depends on the selection properties (early vs. late) of a given condition rather than of the language itself.

Differential processing of thematic and categorical conceptual relations in spoken word production.

Studies of semantic context effects in spoken word production have typically distinguished between categorical (or taxonomic) and associative relations. However, associates tend to confound semantic features or morphological representations, such as whole-part relations and compounds (e.g., BOAT-anchor, BEE-hive). Using a picture-word interference paradigm and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we manipulated categorical (COW-rat) and thematic (COW-pasture) TARGET-distractor relations in a balanced design, finding interference and facilitation effects on naming latencies, respectively, as well as differential patterns of brain activation compared with an unrelated distractor condition. While both types of distractor relation activated the middle portion of the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) consistent with retrieval of conceptual or lexical representations, categorical relations involved additional activation of posterior left MTG, consistent with retrieval of a lexical cohort. Thematic relations involved additional activation of the left angular gyrus. These results converge with recent lesion evidence implicating the left inferior parietal lobe in processing thematic relations and may indicate a potential role for this region during spoken word production.

Lexical selection is competitive: Evidence from indirectly activated semantic associates during picture naming.

In this study, we present 3 picture-word interference (PWI) experiments designed to investigate whether lexical selection processes are competitive. We focus on semantic associative relations, which should interfere according to competitive models but not according to certain noncompetitive models. In a modified version of the PWI paradigm, distractor word pairs were simultaneously presented with the target picture. The distractor words were orthographically related directly to the target picture name (distractors: camera bagel; target: camel), indirectly related to the name of a semantic associate of the target (distractors: camera bagel; target: pyramid, an associate of camel), or unrelated. In a first experiment, which included only indirect relations, we failed to find interference from indirectly activated associates. However, in 2 subsequent experiments that included the associates as naming trials within the experiment, we demonstrated that indirect, orthographically mediated activation of associates produces reliable interference effects. The results indicate that semantic interference is not restricted to members of the same category and are problematic for models of lexical selection that do not include lexical competition.

Attention for speaking: domain-general control from the anterior cingulate cortex in spoken word production.

Accumulating evidence suggests that some degree of attentional control is required to regulate and monitor processes underlying speaking. Although progress has been made in delineating the neural substrates of the core language processes involved in speaking, substrates associated with regulatory and monitoring processes have remained relatively underspecified. We report the results of an fMRI study examining the neural substrates related to performance in three attention-demanding tasks varying in the amount of linguistic processing: vocal picture naming while ignoring distractors (picture-word interference, PWI); vocal color naming while ignoring distractors (Stroop); and manual object discrimination while ignoring spatial position (Simon task). All three tasks had congruent and incongruent stimuli, while PWI and Stroop also had neutral stimuli. Analyses focusing on common activation across tasks identified a portion of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) that was active in incongruent trials for all three tasks, suggesting that this region subserves a domain-general attentional control function. In the language tasks, this area showed increased activity for incongruent relative to congruent stimuli, consistent with the involvement of domain-general mechanisms of attentional control in word production. The two language tasks also showed activity in anterior-superior temporal gyrus (STG). Activity increased for neutral PWI stimuli (picture and word did not share the same semantic category) relative to incongruent (categorically related) and congruent stimuli. This finding is consistent with the involvement of language-specific areas in word production, possibly related to retrieval of lexical-semantic information from memory. The current results thus suggest that in addition to engaging language-specific areas for core linguistic processes, speaking also engages the ACC, a region that is likely implementing domain-general attentional control.

Word Production and the Picture-Word Interference Paradigm: The Role of Learning

Psycholinguistic experiments conducted with the picture-word interference paradigm are typically preceded by a phase during which participants learn the words they will have to produce in the experiment. In Experiment 1, the pictures (e.g., a frog) were to be named and were presented with a categorically related (e.g., cat) or unrelated distracter (e.g., pen). In the related condition responses were slower relative to the unrelated condition for the participants who had gone through the learning phase. In contrast, participants who had not been previously familiarized with the materials showed facilitation. In Experiment 2 one group of participants, as usual, learned to produce the targets upon presentation of the corresponding pictures (e.g., a frog). The other group learned to produce the same targets upon presentation of unrelated pictures (e.g., a clock). They showed very similar semantic effects. The implications of the findings in the study of word production are discussed.