Picture-word Interference Effects Research Articles

Cognitive components of aging-related increase in word-finding difficulty

ABSTRACT Word-finding difficulty (WFD) is a common cognitive complaint in aging, manifesting both in natural speech and in controlled laboratory tests. Various theories of cognitive aging have addressed WFD, and understanding its underlying mechanisms can help to clarify whether it has diagnostic value for neurodegenerative disease. Two influential “information-universal” theories attribute it to rather broad changes in cognition. The processing speed theory posits a general slowdown of all cognitive processes, while the inhibitory deficit hypothesis (IDH) predicts a specific problem in suppressing irrelevant information. One “information specific” theory of language production, the transmission deficit hypothesis (TDH), posits a breakdown in retrieval of phonological word forms from a corresponding lemma. To adjudicate between these accounts, we administered an online gamified covert naming task featuring picture-word interference (PWI), previously validated to elicit similar semantic interference and phonological facilitation effects as overt naming tasks. 125 healthy adults aged 18 to 85 completed the task, along with a battery of executive function tasks and a naturalistic speech sample to quantify WFD in connected speech. PWI effects provided strong support for the TDH but limited support for IDH, in that semantic interference increased and phonological facilitation decreased across the lifespan. However, neither of these effects on single-word retrieval associated with WFD measured in connected speech. Rather, overall reaction time for word retrieval (controlling for psychomotor slowing) was the best predictor of spontaneous WFD and executive function decline, suggesting processing speed as the key factor, and that verbal reaction time may be an important clinical measure.

Picture-Word Interference Effects Are Robust With Covert Retrieval, With and Without Gamification.

The picture-word interference (PWI) paradigm has been used to investigate the time course of processes involved in word retrieval, but is challenging to implement online due to dependence on measurements of vocal reaction time. We performed a series of four experiments to examine picture-word interference and facilitation effects in a form of covert picture naming, with and without gamification. A target picture was accompanied by an audio word distractor that was either unrelated, phonologically-related, associatively-related, or categorically-related to the picture. Participants were instructed to judge whether the name of the target picture ended in the phoneme assigned to the block by pressing corresponding keys as quickly and accurately as possible. Experiments 1 and 2 successfully replicated categorical interference and phonological facilitation effects at different optimal stimulus-onset-asynchronies (SOAs) between words and pictures. Experiment 3 demonstrated that a key gamification feature (collecting coins) motivated faster speed at the expense of accuracy in the gamified vs. experimental format of the task. Experiment 4 adopted the optimal SOAs and verified that the gamification reveals expected interference and facilitation effects despite the speed-accuracy tradeoff. These studies confirmed that categorical interference occurs earlier than phonological facilitation, while both processes are independent from articulation and inherent to word retrieval itself. The covert PWI paradigm and its gamification have methodological value for neuroimaging studies in which articulatory artifacts obscure word retrieval processes, and may be developed into potential online word-finding assessments that can reveal word retrieval difficulties with greater sensitivity.

Lexical selection in bimodal bilinguals: ERP evidence from picture-word interference

ABSTRACT The picture word interference (PWI) paradigm and ERPs were used to investigate whether lexical selection in deaf and hearing ASL-English bilinguals occurs via lexical competition or whether the response exclusion hypothesis (REH) for PWI effects is supported. The REH predicts that semantic interference should not occur for bimodal bilinguals because sign and word responses do not compete within an output buffer. Bimodal bilinguals named pictures in ASL, preceded by either a translation equivalent, semantically-related, or unrelated English written word. In both the translation and semantically-related conditions bimodal bilinguals showed facilitation effects: reduced RTs and N400 amplitudes for related compared to unrelated prime conditions. We also observed an unexpected focal left anterior positivity that was stronger in the translation condition, which we speculate may be due to articulatory priming. Overall, the results support the REH and models of bilingual language production that assume lexical selection occurs without competition between languages.

Control adjustments in speaking: Electrophysiology of the Gratton effect in picture naming

Accumulating evidence suggests that spoken word production requires different amounts of top-down control depending on the prevailing circumstances. For example, during Stroop-like tasks, the interference in response time (RT) is typically larger following congruent trials than following incongruent trials. This effect is called the Gratton effect, and has been taken to reflect top-down control adjustments based on the previous trial type. Such control adjustments have been studied extensively in Stroop and Eriksen flanker tasks (mostly using manual responses), but not in the picture–word interference (PWI) task, which is a workhorse of language production research. In one of the few studies of the Gratton effect in PWI, Van Maanen and Van Rijn (2010) examined the effect in picture naming RTs during dual-task performance. Based on PWI effect differences between dual-task conditions, they argued that the functional locus of the PWI effect differs between post-congruent trials (i.e., locus in perceptual and conceptual encoding) and post-incongruent trials (i.e., locus in word planning). However, the dual-task procedure may have contaminated the results. We therefore performed an electroencephalography (EEG) study on the Gratton effect in a regular PWI task. We observed a PWI effect in the RTs, in the N400 component of the event-related brain potentials, and in the midfrontal theta power, regardless of the previous trial type. Moreover, the RTs, N400, and theta power reflected the Gratton effect. These results provide evidence that the PWI effect arises at the word planning stage following both congruent and incongruent trials, while the amount of top-down control changes depending on the previous trial type.

Picture-word interference is a Stroop effect: A theoretical analysis and new empirical findings

The picture-word interference (PWI) paradigm and the Stroop color-word interference task are often assumed to reflect the same underlying processes. On the basis of a PRP study, Dell’Acqua et al. (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14: 717-722, 2007) argued that this assumption is incorrect. In this article, we first discuss the definitions of Stroop- and picture-word interference. Next, we argue that both effects consist of at least four components that correspond to four characteristics of the distractor word: (1) response-set membership, (2) task relevance, (3) semantic relatedness, and (4) lexicality. On the basis of this theoretical analysis, we conclude that the typical Stroop effect and the typical PWI effect mainly differ in the relative contributions of these four components. Finally, the results of an interference task are reported in which only the nature of the target – color or picture – was manipulated and all other distractor task characteristics were kept constant. The results showed no difference between color and picture targets with respect to all behavioral measures examined. We conclude that the assumption that the same processes underlie verbal interference in color and picture naming is warranted.

Distractor frequency effects in picture–word interference tasks with vocal and manual responses

A number of studies have recently reported that in picture–word interference (PWI) tasks, distractors with a low frequency of occurrence interfere more with picture naming than distractors with high-frequency. This finding is not straightforward to accommodate within traditional accounts of word production in which lexical access is typically conceptualised as competitive. Instead, the distractor frequency effect has been taken to support a view according to which lexical access is not competitive, and PWI effects arise at a postlexical preparation stage. Two experiments are reported which contrasted picture naming with a manual task performed on the picture name (Experiment 1: syllable judgment; Experiment 2: phoneme monitoring). In both studies, an equivalent effect of distractor frequency was observed for vocal and manual tasks, suggesting that the effect arises at a shared, abstract processing level. Consequently, the distractor frequency effect should not be interpreted as evidence for the claim that distractors have to be excluded from an articulatory response buffer before target naming can proceed.

My Word! Interference from Reading Object Names Implies a Role for Competition during Picture Name Retrieval

A related word prime has been found to interfere with picture naming after unrelated intervening trials (word-to-picture interference). Recently, Stroop-type picture-word interference effects have been interpreted in terms of a postlexical response exclusion process rather than a competitive lexical selection process. An experiment is reported that examines whether word-to-picture effects could reflect response exclusion mechanisms and, more generally, strategic processing of the word prime. Forty-eight volunteer university students named aloud sequences of semantically related (and unrelated) word primes and picture targets, separated by two unrelated filler stimuli. On half of the trials, participants were asked to count backwards in threes from a random number presented immediately after naming the prime word. They were also given a surprise recall test at the end of the naming block. Results for naming times and errors indicated a main effect of relatedness; semantic interference effects were not dependent on the unfilled gap following the word prime trial and were also not tied to episodic recall of prime words. The data indicate that slowed picture naming times are more likely to emerge from processes intrinsic to word prime naming rather than controlled processing and do not readily fit the postlexical response exclusion account. The results are considered in relation to two recent accounts of interference over unrelated trials, which refer to some form of competition at, or prior to, lexical access.

The activation of embedded words in spoken word identification is robust but constrained: Evidence from the picture-word interference paradigm.

Three picture-word interference (PWI) experiments assessed the extent to which embedded subset words are activated during the identification of spoken superset words (e.g., bone in trombone). Participants named aloud pictures (e.g., brain) while spoken distractors were presented. In the critical condition, superset distractors contained a semantically related embedded word (e.g., charm, which contains arm). In Experiment 1, supersets and subsets differed by one phoneme (charm/arm) and interference effects were obtained when subsets were embedded at the beginning or end of the superset. In Experiment 2, the subsets and supersets differed by three or more phonemes. Interference was obtained for final embedded words aligned with a syllable boundary of the superset (acrobat/bat) but not otherwise (pioneer/ear). In Experiment 3, the size of these PWI effects was compared to the effects obtained with the subset words presented in isolation. The implication of these findings for theories of speech perception and production are discussed. We also consider the possible advantages of the PWI task over cross-modal priming and "visual-world" procedures when studying these issues.

The picture-word interference effect is not a Stroop effect

A psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm was used to isolate the locus of the picture-word interference effect along the chain of processes subtended in name production. Two stimuli were presented sequentially on each trial, separated by a varying stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). The first stimulus, SI, was a tone that required a manual response. The second stimulus, S2, was a picture-word stimulus associated with picture naming. The distractor word was conceptually related to the picture on half of the trials, and unrelated in the other trials. A picture-word interference effect was found at long SOA, but not at short SOA. Such underadditive interaction between SOA and semantic relatedness suggests strongly that the locus of the picture-word interference effect is functionally earlier than the PRP effect locus. The results are discussed in relation to models of word production suggesting the involvement of central mechanisms in the selection of lexical output.

Teaching adults new words: The role of practice and consolidation.

Semantic and orthographic learning of new words was investigated with the help of the picture-word interference (PWI) task. In this version of the Stroop task, picture naming is delayed by the simultaneous presentation of a semantically related as opposed to an unrelated distractor word (a specific PWI effect), as well as by an unrelated word compared with a nonword (a general PWI effect). This interference is taken to reflect automatic orthographic and semantic processing. The authors observed that participants showed both types of PWI effects for newly learned words following a single study session. Interestingly, specific PWI effects were not obtained immediately after testing but did emerge a week later without additional practice. This suggests that a period of consolidation is involved in the establishment of word representations. In addition, identical PWI effects were obtained when the study and test words were presented in either the same or different letter case. This provides evidence that the newly acquired orthographic representations are coded in an abstract format.

Level of categorisation effect: A novel effect in the picture-word interference paradigm

In four experiments we explored the effects of two variables in the picture-word interference paradigm: semantic relatedness and the level of categorisation of distractors relative to pictures' names. Experiment 1 addressed whether the contrasting effects of semantically related distractors in category- and basic-level naming have a methodological origin (i.e., differences in the number of responses and the number of repetitions of responses between experiments). Experiments 2, 3 and 4 explored the effect of the level of categorisation of distractor words relative to the level of categorisation of the response, independent of semantic relatedness. Two main results are reported. First, the effect of semantically related distractors depends on the level of categorisation at which the response has to be given. Second, semantically unrelated distractors at the same level of categorisation as that of the response interfere more than unrelated distractors at a different level of categorisation. The implications of these results for the interpretation of picture-word interference effects and their implications for models of lexical access in speech production are discussed.

Picture-word interference increases with target-set size

In the picture-word interference task the naming of a picture is hampered by the presence of a distractor word that is to be ignored. Two main components of this interference effect can be distinguished: an interference effect induced by an unrelated distractor word in comparison with a nonword control, and an additional interference effect that is due to a semantic similarity between target and distractor (calledsemantic interference). We examine whether the size of these two interference effects is affected by the number of different target pictures in an experiment. The results show that both interference effects increase with the size of the target set. This finding has two implications. First, at an empirical level, the use of a relatively small number of target pictures may account for remarkably small, or even nonsignificant, picture-word interference effects in a number of previous studies. Second, at a theoretical level, the present finding is in accordance with a name-retrieval account of picture-word interference.

Components of Stroop-like interference in picture naming.

The semantic interference effect observed in Stroop tasks and picture-word interference tasks might be due to the previous confounding of semantic similarity with task relevance (in the Stroop task) and with perceptual similarity (in the picture-word interference task). A picture-word variant of the Stroop task was devised in which the factors of task relevance and perceptual similarity were controlled. The distractor conditions allowed for the examination of four types of context effects. The results show that the overall Stroop-like interference effect can be decomposed into interference effects due to (1) a semantic relation between distractor and target, (2) the semantic relevance of the distractor word in the task at hand, (3) the presence of the distractor word in the response set, and (4) the mere presence of a word. Implications of these findings for the locus or loci of Stroop and picture-word interference effects are discussed. It is concluded that distractor words in Stroop-like naming tasks interfere mainly in the process of name retrieval.