Phytogeographic Zones Research Articles

Diversité Des Loranthaceae Et Leur Impact Sur Vitellaria Paradoxa C.F.Gaertn.: Un Fruitier À Grande Valeur Socio-Économique Au Nord-Bénin

Shea butter: Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn (Sapotaceae) is a fruit tree in the Sudano-Sahelian region where it is a major economic source. Unfortunately, in Benin, the species has been revealed in recent decades, the target of parasitic vascular plants of Loranthaceae family that threaten its conservation. The present study, carried out in northern Benin, evaluated the impact of these parasitic plants on the shea of two phytogeographical zones. The botanical inventory identified three species of Loranthaceae in fields and protected areas. The rate of infestation and parasite density were assessed and their variation on shea was assessed. The results show that shea is parasitized by three species of Loranthaceae in varying proportions: Agelanthus dodoneifolius (DC.) Polh. and Wiens (191.75 tufts / ha), Tapinanthus globiferus (A. Rich.) Van Tieghem (70.57 tufts / ha) and T. Ophiodes (Sprague) (2 tufts / ha). The impact of Loranthaceae on shea productivity varies significantly between fields and protected areas with infestation rates of 87% versus 42% and average densities per shea foot of 14.76 tufts versus 3.62 tufts. These results are data to be taken into account in the control programs against Loranthaceae which parasitize shea.

Pollen Analysis of the Honeys Samples Produced in the Three Phyto-geographical Zones of Benin

The aim of this work was the melissopalynologycal analysis of the honey samples collected both during the dry and rainy seasons of the three phyto-geographical zones of Benin. The analysis was performed by conventional methods on 60 honeys samples. The total of 138 taxa have been identified at family level (31), genus level (20) and to the level species (87). The number of pollens counted varies according to the phyto-geographical zones. Thus, 17091 pollens have been counted in the samples of the Sudanian zone; 13884 in those of the Sudano-Guinean zone and 7960 pollens in those of the Guinean zone. The pollen content of the honey samples reflects the plant species of the three phyto-geographical zones. The most dominant plant taxa were Combretaceaes (26.01%) and Parkia biglobosa (10.67%) in Sudanian zone, Combretaceae (29.52%) in SudanoGuinean zone. In the Guinean zone, the dominant taxa were Zea mays (18.35%) and Terminalia (15.34%). The specific richness varies from 6 to 43 in the Sudanian zone, from 7 to 34 in the Sudano-Guinean zone and from 1 to 28 taxa in the Guinean zone. None of the density of the dominant pollens reached 45%, thus all the analyzed honeys are polyfloral.

Synopsis of Sida (Malvaceae, Malvoideae, Malveae) in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil

Sida is one of most heterogeneous genera of Malvaceae and one of the richest in species inside Malvoideae. It comprises about 200 pantropical and American species with a few of these extending into the temperate regions, 112 of them occurring in Brazil. Studies on the taxonomy of Sida in this country are few. In the State of Pernambuco, the genus is represented by 24 species widely distributed in all of the four major phytogeographical zones (littoral, agreste, savannah and caatinga). It occurs in different localities and habitats, such as natural and disturbed areas or in urbanized areas. This synopsis includes a taxonomic key, new synonyms, lectotypes and new records, description of one new species (Sida pernambucensis), illustrations, and brief comments of morphology, habitat and geographical distribution.

A new species of Litsea (Lauraceae) from Kerala part of Western Ghats, India

A new species of Litsea from India is described and illustrated. Litsea indoverticillata is recognized from the Malabar Wildlife sanctuary of Nilgiri phytogeographical zone of southern Western Ghats. It is distinguished from the closely related L. quinqueflora and L. verticillata by straggling shrub habit; 7–15 mm long, glabrous petiole, chartaceous and glabrous leaves, glabrous midrib; 15–24 pairs of lateral veins; solitary, glabrous, and pruinose inflorescence; greenish-white to whitish flowers.

Chemical Screening and Antibacterial Activity of Honey Produced in Benin

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of honeys produced in Benin against selected pathogenic strains and to determine their composition in plant secondary metabolites with known antibacterial activity. Methods: A total of 60 honey samples were collected in the country’s three phyto-geographical zones during the dry and rainy seasons. Chemical screening for secondary metabolites was performed on raw undiluted honey. Undiluted honey (100%) and honey diluted at 75%, 50% and 25% were used to assess their antimicrobial effect in vitro on six reference strains (ref-S) and six meat isolated staphylococcal strains (meat-S). MIC and MBC were also determined. Results: Chemical screening of undiluted honeys revealed that tannins, flavonoids, leuco-anthocyanins, alkaloids, coumarins and reducing compounds were preponderant irrespective of season of production. Only the undiluted honeys were effective at inhibiting some of the strains, namely four ref-S (P. mirabilis, S. aureus, S. epidermidis and S. oralis) and three meat-S (S. aureus, S.lentus, S. xylosus). Season of honey production had a significant effect on mean Inhibition Zone Diameter (IZD) for ref-S. For these strains, greater IZD were found for honeys produced during the dry season, except for S. aureus. For meat-S, in contrast, zone of production had a significant effect, with greater IZD for honeys from the Sudanian zone. Strains differed significantly in their sensitivity assessed by IZD: across all honeys, the greatest IZD were against P. mirabilis and meat-S:S. aureus and S. lentus. MIC varied greatly among honeys and strains. For meat-S, the effects of production zone and season were significant and the highest MIC were found for honeys from the Sudanian zone. Application/Improvements: Benin honey has bacteriostatic properties against several pathogens, and influenced by season and zone of production. Further studies are warranted to substantiate these new findings and identify the active principles.

Evaluating fire severity in Sudanian ecosystems of Burkina Faso using Landsat 8 satellite images

The fire severity of the 2013–2014 fire season within Sudanian ecosystems in Burkina Faso was evaluated from Landsat 8 images using derivatives of the Normalized Burn Ratio algorithm (NBR). The relationship between the image-derived severity and the field observed severity i.e. Composite Burn Index (CBI) was best described by a nonlinear model of the form y = a + b*EXP(CBI *c) (R2 = 0.66). Classification of the image-derived burned area into burn severity classes achieved a classification Kappa accuracy statistic of 0.56. Highly severely burned areas were mapped with the highest accuracy (user's accuracy 77%, producer's accuracy 86%). The severity of the burn varied across phyto-geographical zones, protected status, land cover regimes, and forest management practices. The south Sudanian zone burned with a higher severity (low = 7%, moderate = 16% and high = 13%) than the north Sudanian zone (low = 5%, moderate = 10% and high = 5%). The mean of the highly severely burned areas differed significantly among the forest management practices (P = 0.005). A pair-wise comparison of the severity mean area indicated that the highly burned areas within forests managed for wildlife purposes differed significantly with that of both forests under the joint management (P = 0.006) and those under no management (P = 0.024). Among the management practices, forests jointly managed by the local communities and the government had the highest unburned area and the least highly severely burned areas reflecting the impacts of bottom-up forestry management where the local communities are actively involved in the management.

Conservation of Botanical Biodiversity of Medicinal Value

Introduction: Medicinal plants have been used in the mitigation and treatment of various ailments since ancient time. Several medicinal plants described in various traditional medicine systems serve as a potential lead for the development of lead compound in drug discovery process. Identification of the crude drug is the fundamental step in the formulation of plant-based drugs. The preeminent objectives for cultivation of medicinal plants include the adaptability, growth, flowering and fruiting time of medicinal plants, and suitable maturity time. Considering these facts, the Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) has initiated the steps for developing of medicinal plant gardens at different geographical zones for demonstrative purposes, which are used in the traditional systems of medicine. Objective: This contribution highlights conservation of botanical biodiversity of medicinal value of CCRAS in the demonstration of medicinal plants used in traditional and folk medicine in different agro-climatic zones (ranging between altitudes 285 and 1638 m) of India situated in different states of India. Materials and methods: Cultivation of medicinal plants under Medicinal Plant Research Programme is being carried out mainly in four gardens located at different climatic zones, viz., Regional Ayurveda Research Institute (RARI), Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh), Regional Ayurveda Institute for Fundamental Research (RAIFR), Pune (Maharashtra), RARI Itanagar (Arunachal Pradesh), and RARI, Ranikhet (Tarikhet) (Uttarakhand). Observations: Totally, 533 species of medicinal plants are maintained in these four gardens, out of which, 332 plant species were maintained by RARI, Jhansi; in which 4 species are critically endangered, 20 species are least concerned and rare. In RAIFR, Pune, 159 species of medicinal plants were maintained; out of which 12 species are least concerned and 1 species is vulnerable. In RARI, Itanagar, 126 plant species of medicinal plants were maintained; out of which 4 species under cultivation are critically endangered, 6 species least concerned, 2 vulnerable and threatened. In RARI, Ranikhet, 119 plant species of medicinal plants were maintained; out of which 8 species under cultivation are rare, 4 species critically endangered and vulnerable. Saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) is successfully cultivated in the Institute (RARI, Ranikhet) gardens situated at Ranikhet and Chamma. Conclusion: The data is helpful in identifying the phytogeographical zones of specific medicinal plants that will be beneficial for the conservation of the particular plant species at their natural habitat. It is necessary to take steps to conserve the plant resources by large-scale cultivation with the help of different agrotechniques in their natural habitat. Presently, the packages of practice of medicinal plants are not available and these data will be helpful for documentation of the agrotechniques of the medicinal plants. The implementation of significant methods and protocols must be positive, suggesting outstanding contributions in the field of cultivation.

Pro-wound healing activity of Phlomis viscosa leaves

We examined pro-wound healing properties of several plant extracts from the Judea region (Israel) in vivo and in vitro models. Judea is a phytogeographic zone with stressful conditions influencing in a beneficial manner the medicinal properties of the local plants [1]. The best wound healing properties belonged to the ethanol extract from Phlomis viscosa leaves. Non-toxic concentrations of the extract were determined by the Neutral Red assay [1]. After the determination of the non-lethal concentrations of plant extracts, we screened them for wound-healing modifying activity using the scratch assay: a standard “wound gap” of equal width was created by a silicone insert in a monolayer of human dermal fibroblasts. During the assay the closing of this gap by migrating and growing cells was observed (measurements of the cell free surface at given time points). Addition of the extract led to a significant acceleration of wound-healing and almost complete closure of the cell-free area after 24hours – incubation comparing with control (p < 0.05). We purified the active pro-wound healing compounds from this plant as described previously [2]. By using the Micro HPLC-ESI/MS and Orbitrap-based mass spectrometry, we confirmed the presence of diosmin in the extract.

Evaluating the Effects of Different Vegetation Types on Necrophagous Fly Communities (Diptera: Calliphoridae; Sarcophagidae): Implications for Conservation.

The present study was conducted in five different phytogeographic zones of the Brazilian state of Maranhão, three of which (the Amazon Forest, Cerrado, and Palm Groves) are more heterogeneous, whereas the other two (Marshlands and Mangroves) are more homogeneous. In each zone, nine sites were visited for the collection of necrophagous flies using bait traps in 2010, 2011, and 2012. The calliphorid and sarcophagid communities observed at each site were compared in terms of species richness, composition, and abundance. The more heterogeneous zones had higher species richness, except in the case of the sarcophagids in the forest habitats. The calliphorids Chloroprocta idioidea (Robineau- Desvoidy, 1830), Mesembrinella bicolor (Fabricius, 1805), Hemilucilia semidiaphana (Rondani, 1850) and Lucilia eximia (Wiedemann, 1819) were more closely associated with the Cerrado, Palm Grove and Amazon Forest zones, and Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius, 194) with the Mangrove. In the sarcophagids, Peckia (Euboettcheria) subducta (Lopes, 1935) and P. (Pattonella) palidipilosa (Curran & Walley, 1934) were associated with the Amazon Forest, and P. (Sarcodexia) lambens (Wiedemann, 1830) and Tricharaea (Sarcophagula) occidua (Fabricius, 1794) with the Palm Grove and Cerrado zones. In the calliphorids, the greatest dissimilarity was recorded between the Amazon Forest and the Mangrove and Lowland grassland zones. In the sarcophagids, by contrast, the greatest dissimilarities were recorded between the Amazon Forest and all the other four zones. In general, then, the phytogeographic zones with the highest environmental heterogeneity were characterized by the greatest species richness and abundance of necrophagous flies.

A novel phylogenetic regionalization of phytogeographical zones of southern Africa reveals their hidden evolutionary affinities

AbstractAimAlthough existing bioregional classification schemes often consider the compositional affinities within regional biotas, they do not typically incorporate phylogenetic information explicitly. Because phylogeny captures information on the evolutionary history of taxa, it provides a powerful tool for delineating biogeographical boundaries and for establishing relationships among them. Here, we present the first vegetation delineation of the woody flora of southern Africa based upon evolutionary relationships.LocationSouthern Africa.MethodsWe used a published time‐calibrated phylogenetic tree for 1400 woody plant species along with their geographical distributions and a metric of phylogenetic beta diversity to generate a phylogenetic delineation of the woody vegetation of southern Africa. We then explored environmental correlates of phylogenetic turnover between them, and the evolutionary distinctiveness of the taxa within them.ResultsWe identified 15 phylogenetically distinct biogeographical units, here referred to as phyloregions. The largest phyloregion broadly overlaps with Savanna vegetation, while the phyloregion overlapping with the south‐western portion of the Fynbos biome is the most evolutionarily distinct. Potential evapotranspiration and mean annual temperature differ significantly among phyloregions and correlate with patterns of phylogenetic beta diversity between them. Our phylogeny‐based delimitation of southern Africa's woody vegetation broadly matches currently recognized phytogeographical classifications, but also highlights parts of the Namib Karoo and Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park as distinct, but previously under‐recognized biogeographical units.Main conclusionsOur analysis provides new insights into the structure and phylogenetic relationships among the woody flora of southern Africa. We show that evolutionary affinities differentiate phyloregions closely resembling existing vegetation classifications, yet also identify ‘cryptic’ phyloregions that are as evolutionarily distinct as some of the recognized African vegetation types.

Litsea udayanii (Lauraceae): A new species from the southern Western Ghats, India

Litsea udayanii, a new species of Lauraceae from the Anamalai phytogeographical zone of southern Western Ghats is described and illustrated here. The new species resembles L. cubeba in its clustered inflorescence and L. beddomei in fruits. Litsea udayanii differs from L. cubeba by its coriaceous leaves, 12 staminodes in the female flowers, ellipsoid fruits, and an enlarged and cup-shaped perianth tube; it differs from L. beddomei by its elliptic-oblong leaves with cuneate to rounded base and abaxially prominent tertiary veins, and by its clustered inflorescence. In contrast, L. cubeba is characterized by chartaceous leaves, 8–9 staminodes in the female flowers, subglobose fruits, and a small and flattened perianth tube and L. beddomei is distinguished by linear-oblong leaves with acute to attenuate base and abaxially inconspicuous tertiary veins, and by inflorescences arranged on 1–5 cm long brachyblasts.

Reproductive biology of Pentadesma butyracea (Clusiaceae), source of a valuable non timber forest product in Benin

Background and aims – The main reproductive traits of the native African food tree species, Pentadesma butyracea Sabine (Clusiaceae), which is threatened in Benin and Togo, were examined in Benin to gather basic data necessary to develop conservation strategies in these countries. Methodology – Data were collected on phenological pattern, floral morphology, pollinator assemblage, seed production and germination conditions on 77 adult individuals from three natural populations occurring in the Sudanian phytogeographical zone. Key results – In Benin, Pentadesma butyracea flowers once a year during the dry season from September to December. Flowering entry displayed less variation among populations than among individuals within populations. However, a high synchrony of different floral stages between trees due to a long flowering period (c. 2 months per tree), might still facilitate pollen exchange. Pollen-ovule ratio was 577 ± 213 suggesting facultative xenogamy. The apical position of inflorescences, the yellowish to white greenish flowers and the high quantity of pollen and nectar per flower (1042 ± 117 μL) represent floral attractants that predispose the species to animal-pollination. The main pollinators were two sunbirds (Cyanomitra verticalis, Cinnyris coccinigastrus) and three Hymenoptera (Apis mellifera, Meliponula togoensis, Hypotrigona sp.). Mean fruit set reached 49%, and absolute fruit production increased with tree size. Seeds were desiccation-sensitive (i.e. recalcitrant) with a maximum duration of hydrated storage of three months. Germination of seeds was most successful and rapid at 30°C (50% after nine days). Conclusions – Our results indicate that the natural reproduction of P. butyracea is not limited by its ecology so that we hypothesize anthropogenic activities to be the reason for the threatened status of P. butyracea in Benin and Togo. However, due to its recalcitrant seeds, the conservation of its genetic resources is not feasible through ex situ conservation of seed banks but in situ strategies and/or ex situ conservation in orchards should be successful.

The Vascular Plant Diversity of Burkina Faso (West Africa) — A Quantitative Analysis and Implications for Conservation

Zizka, A., A. Thiombiano, S. Dressler, B. M. I. Nacoulma, A. Ouédraogo, I. Ouédraogo, O. ouédraogo, G. Zizka, K. Hahn & M. Schmidt (2015). The vascular plant diversity of Burkina Faso (West Africa) — a quantitative analysis and implications for conservation. Candollea 70: 9–20 In English, English and French abstracts.Based on a species inventory and the related distribution dataset, the authors present a quantitative analysis of the vascular plant diversity of Burkina Faso (BFA) and its four phytogeographic zones. We analyzed species richness, higher taxon diversity, life forms, chorological types, introduced species, habitat preferences and the number of rare species. The flora of BFA comprises 1972 non-cultivated vascular plant species in 752 genera and 145 families. Species richness and plant family richness are highest in the South Sudanian zone in the South of the country. Fabaceae, Poaceae and Cyperaceae are the most species rich plant families. Only one species (Isoetes jaegeri Pitot) is endemic to the country, whereas the vast majority occurs throughout Africa. The flora is dominated by therophytes and phanerophytes. Our results show a good representation of the West African flora in BFA. The flora and vegetation of the four phytogeographic zones within BFA is determined by the latitudinal climatic gradient of the region. The relative number of phanerophytes and forest species decrease along the gradient, while the relative number of therophytes increase. Based on the specimen record we classified 38% of the plant species as “rare” to BFA. The analyses show that the south-west of BFA is a center of national biodiversity and a potential “hotspot” for conservation. In addition to its high species richness this area harbors the highest number of rare species (409 species, 29%) including the endemic species.

Toxicological evaluation of hydroethanolic extract of Helicteres sacarolha A. St.- Hil. et al.

Ethnopharmacological relevanceHelicteres sacarolha, popularly known in Brazil as ‘rosquinha’, ‘sacarolhas’, ‘semente-de-macaco’, is widely distributed in different phytogeographic zones in Brazil. Preparations from its roots and leaves are employed in popular Brazilian medicine in the treatments of ailments such as peptic ulcer, hypertension among others. Cytotoxicity, acute oral and subchronic toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of Helicteres sacrolha was investigated as well as the classes of phytochemical present in the extract. Materials and methodsHydroethanolic (70%) extract of Helicteres sacarolha (HEHs) was prepared by maceration. Potential cytotoxicity was evaluated in CHO-k1 cells. Acute administration of HEHs was done in mice as a single dose up to 5000mg/kg and subchronic oral toxicity study for 30 days in Wistar rats at daily oral doses of 0, 250 and 750mg/kg b.w. Clinical observations and toxicological related parameters were determined every 6 days. Blood was collected for biochemical and hematological analyses, while histological examinations were performed on selected organs. Selected secondary metabolites detected were quantified by UV-spectrophotometry and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). ResultsThe extract was non-cytotoxic to CHO-k1 cells. In acute oral toxicity, there was no mortality or clinical alterations in the female mice, at all doses, except for the transient diarrhea observed at 5000mg/kg acute. Doses up to 2000mg/kg caused no mortality or treatment-related clinical manifestations in the male mice, but treatment-related alterations were however observed at 4000mg/kg, with mortalities recorded at 5000mg/kg. During the subchronic oral toxicity study, no mortality or treatment-related clinical signs were observed. Differences in relative organ weight, hematological parameters and histopathology observations between the treated and the control groups were considered not to be treatment-related. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed the presence of relatively high content of phenolics and flavonoids in HEHs. HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of the quantified compounds and demonstrated the presence of ellagic acid, morin and naringin. ConclusionOur results confirmed that HEHs have a broad safety margin for therapeutic use.

Genomics of the divergence continuum in an African plant biodiversity hotspot, I: drivers of population divergence in Restio capensis (Restionaceae).

Understanding the drivers of population divergence, speciation and species persistence is of great interest to molecular ecology, especially for species-rich radiations inhabiting the world's biodiversity hotspots. The toolbox of population genomics holds great promise for addressing these key issues, especially if genomic data are analysed within a spatially and ecologically explicit context. We have studied the earliest stages of the divergence continuum in the Restionaceae, a species-rich and ecologically important plant family of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of South Africa, using the widespread CFR endemic Restio capensis (L.) H.P. Linder & C.R. Hardy as an example. We studied diverging populations of this morphotaxon for plastid DNA sequences and >14 400 nuclear DNA polymorphisms from Restriction site Associated DNA (RAD) sequencing and analysed the results jointly with spatial, climatic and phytogeographic data, using a Bayesian generalized linear mixed modelling (GLMM) approach. The results indicate that population divergence across the extreme environmental mosaic of the CFR is mostly driven by isolation by environment (IBE) rather than isolation by distance (IBD) for both neutral and non-neutral markers, consistent with genome hitchhiking or coupling effects during early stages of divergence. Mixed modelling of plastid DNA and single divergent outlier loci from a Bayesian genome scan confirmed the predominant role of climate and pointed to additional drivers of divergence, such as drift and ecological agents of selection captured by phytogeographic zones. Our study demonstrates the usefulness of population genomics for disentangling the effects of IBD and IBE along the divergence continuum often found in species radiations across heterogeneous ecological landscapes.

Uncovering the Geroprotective Potential of Medicinal Plants from the Judea Region of Israel

Plants growing in the Judea region are widely used in traditional medicine. This phytogeographic zone stands out in its climatic conditions and biodiversity. Consequently, both endemic and widely distributed Mediterranean plants growing in the area have unique chemotypes characterized by accumulation of relatively high levels of phytosteroids. Our comprehensive analysis revealed that many of the plants growing in the Judea region may hold a geroprotective potential. With this in mind, we undertook a wide screen of dozens of candidate herbal extracts for their cell protective, wound-healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. The results obtained thus far have clearly shown that the extracts tested (1) protect normal human fibroblasts from genotoxic stress (prevent DNA double-strand beaks, increase cell survival and reduce the number of cells undergoing cellular senescence), (2) decrease secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, (3) promote wound healing, and (4) exert more pronounced cytotoxicity toward cancer cells.

Impacts of the diversity of traditional uses and potential economic value on food tree species conservation status: case study of African bush mango trees (Irvingiaceae) in the Dahomey Gap (West Africa)

Background and aims – Bitter and sweet African bush mango trees belong to the family Irvingiaceae and produce valuable non-timber forest products in humid lowland areas of West and Central Africa. The bitter and sweet types are treated as distinct taxa at the variety or species level. They have not been studied in the western part of their distribution range, and many aspects of their large-scale utilization remain unknown. In this study, we link differences in socio-cultural groups to the agroforestry status of bush mango trees in order to identify the key factors influencing their abundance and conservation in the study area. Methods – First, we gathered uses and local management strategies from nine main socio-cultural areas in Benin and Togo, part of the Dahomey Gap. Second, occurrence data were obtained throughout the Gap and imported into DIVA-GIS and MATLAB to calculate the spatial pattern of the density and analyse its structure and variation relative to three factors: the country, the phytogeographical zone and the dominant soil category. Third, agroforestry system characteristics and farmers' social status relative to 841 trees were used in a multinomial logistic regression to identify anthropogenic factors driving the intensive cultivation of bush mango trees. Finally, the impact of socio-cultural activities on extent and density of bush mango tree populations was analysed. Key results – In the entire study zone, the sweet mesocarp is consumed and the endocarp of bush mangoes is commercialized. The application of endocarp-based diets and socio-therapeutic uses are common to communities in Benin. Sweet bush mango trees are generally found either in home gardens or cultivation fields where they may occur at high densities (up to 1020 trees per 25 ha). Bitter trees, however, are confined to the Volta forest region in Togo and occur at low densities (<462 trees per 25 ha) in the wild, sometimes in protected areas, in forest gardens and in fields. This indicates a clear difference in cultivation methods between the bitter and sweet trees. Farmland status, farmer socio-cultural group and type of bush mango trees determined the cultivation intensity. Conclusion – The fact that small farmlands are converted into sweet bush mango tree orchards indicates that farmers actively cultivate bush mango trees in the study area. Diversity of indigenous knowledge, however, is not correlated either to intensive cultivation or domestication efforts and local genetic conservation program. Where slash and burn agriculture and intensive collection of fruits jeopardize bitter trees, traditional fishing systems (using bush mango twigs), a traditional selection strategy, and intensive land commercialization severely threaten sweet bush mango tree genetic resources.

Socio-economical aspects of the exploitation of &lt;i&gt;Termitomyces&lt;/i&gt; fruit bodies in central and southern Côte d’Ivoire: Raising awareness for their sustainable use

Objective: Picking fungal fruit bodies is a popular spare time occupation, as well as a source of income in many countries. In central and southern Côte d’Ivoire, fruit bodies of the genus Termitomyces are intensively harvested and sold by the local inhabitants. However, information on the dimensions of this trade and on other socio-economic aspects of the exploitation of these edible mushrooms is lacking. This study aims at (a) investigating the local populations’ knowledge about Termitomyces fruit bodies, (b) examining their utilization by identifying the actors involved of their exploitation and (c) determining the factors, explaining income differences among actors of this exploitation and fructification areas. Methodology: Some 240 persons from 12 villages belonging to two sub-ethnic groups (Baoulé and Abbey) were interviewed as to their attitude towards Termitomyces, using a structured survey questionnaire. Thus, we obtained information on Termitomyces fruit bodies’ availability, on indigenous knowledge and especially on the modes of utilization as well as on seasonal aspects of their trade.Conclusions:Interviewees had a solid knowledge of edible mushrooms in general and Termitomyces in particular. Four species were recorded in the study area (Termitomyces medius, T. letestui, T. cf. eurhizus and T. fuliginosus). The latter three species were considered as edible. These mushrooms are a key source of cash income, especially for women (traders) and the farmers (harvesters). However, only one species, Termitomyces letestui, is sold through a well-established trade route. Seasonal earnings within this trade route differed among actors, visited villages and phytogeographic zones. These fungi representing a typical Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are menaced by unsustainable depletion. Overharvesting is jeopardizing their persistence as well as that of their dependant termite species. Raising an awareness that prevents their incurring the “tragedy of the commons” by developing a sustainable form of harvest is an essential prerequisite for their long-term preservation.Key words: Termitomyces; fruit bodies; Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs); seasonal income; Sustainable use.

Population structure of the widespread species, Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr. across the climatic gradient in West Africa semi-arid area

In the climate change context, widely distributed plant species can serve as relevant barometers of ecosystems' sensitivity or resilience to disturbances. This study aimed at assessing the population structure and individual morphological traits of Anogeissus leiocarpa, a widespread tree species, across a broad strip of land, from the north to the south of Burkina Faso. We compared stands in four phytogeographical zones in order to analyze morphological variations in trees and recruits density, individual size and their spatial structure. Our results showed significant increase of tree density from the Sahel (77.1 trees/ha) to the South-Sudanian (166 trees/ha) while diameter, height and basal area had an opposite trend. No recruits were found in the Sahel stands, while their density increased from the Sub-Sahel (5.17 individuals/ha) to the South-Sudanian (6.46 individuals/ha). Tree diameters revealed positive asymmetric distributions in the Sudanian and Sub-Sahel whereas the Sahel stands showed a symmetric distribution. Height structure of saplings revealed “J reverse” shape in Sudanian stands while Sub-Sahelian ones exhibited Gaussian shape. Height–diameter relationships revealed thin trees towards the south-Sudanian. The spatial structure of trees indicated random distributions in all zones whereas recruits presented aggregative distribution trend in the Sudanian zones. A. leiocarpa's trees have a good ability to support broad climatic fluctuations but the populations' rejuvenation is unpredictable in the extreme harsh conditions. The species is fairly resilient to anthropogenic disturbances in Sub-Sahel and Sudanian zones. However, managing issues should pay attention to the species communities by considering its demographic behavior in the health state appreciation of ecosystems.

QUANTIFICATION OF PROTODIOSCIN AND PROTOTRIBESTIN IN FRUITS OF TRIBULUS TERRESTRIS L. COLLECTED FROM DIFFERENT PHYTO-GEOGRAPHICAL ZONES OF INDIA

Fruits of Tribulus terrestris L. are known for its medicinal and dietary application in the traditional medicine of India and other parts of the World. Protodioscin and Prototribestin are steroidal saponins notably found in the T. terrestris. The aim of the present study is to quantify protodioscin and prototribestin in fruits of T. terrestris collected from different phytogeographical zones of India to check the chemotaxonomic variation, if any, through HPTLC using ternary mobile phase of n butanol:glacial acetic acid:water (80:06:20, v/v/v) on precoated silica gel 60 F254 aluminum plates. Analytical studies showed considerable variations of Protodioscin and Prototribestin content in T. terrestris fruits, and it was observed that maximum percentage of Protodioscin (0.317%) found in samples from Western Ghat of India and maximum percentage of Prototribestin (0.636%) found in sample growing in the Arid zone of India.