Physiological Concentrations Of NaCl Research Articles

Class I MHC is stabilized against thermal denaturation by physiological concentrations of NaCl.

Class I MHC molecules are ternary complexes composed of an allotype specific heavy chain, a noncovalently associated protein beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)m), and a peptide. The complexes are assembled in the endoplasmic reticulum by a complex series of chaperones and peptide-loading mechanisms. In the absence of beta(2)m or peptide, very little class I heavy chain is transported to the surface of the cell. Complexes that do not contain all three parts of the protein are not made productively in vivo and not at all in vitro. The ability of the complex to withstand thermal denaturation in vitro has been shown to be related to the binding affinity of the peptide. Paradoxically, some low-affinity peptide complexes denature at or below human basal body temperatures in vitro but are effective biological agents in vivo. Here we show that these complexes are stabilized against thermal denaturation by physiological cosolvents and maximally stabilized by 150 mM NaCl. While the degree of stabilization by 150 mM NaCl is greatest for low-affinity peptide/MHC complexes, the mechanism of stabilization is independent of peptide sequence. This effect is hypothesized to occur by multiple mechanisms including increasing the affinity of beta(2)m for the complex and charge screening.

Neurocan Is a Heparin Binding Proteoglycan

Neurocan and brevican are related chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans which are mainly expressed in the central nervous system. Neurocan and the secreted brevican variant are composed of globular N-terminal hyaluronan binding domains, central O-linked oligosaccharide attachment regions, and globular C-terminal domains. Interaction studies of mouse brain proteoglycans revealed that neurocan, but not brevican, was retained on a heparin affinity matrix. Also a recombinantly produced C-terminal fragment of neurocan, expressed by HEK 293 cells, was retained by the heparin affinity matrix. The substitution of this fragment with a chondroitin sulfate chain did not inhibit binding to the heparin affinity matrix at physiological NaCl concentrations, but decreased the NaCl concentration necessary for elution. Two potential consequences of the heparin binding ability of neurocan are an enforcement of the interaction with other heparin binding molecules and a directed secretion by polarized cells.

Synergistic actions of antibacterial neutrophil defensins and cathelicidins.

Activated neutrophils extracellularly release antibacterial defensins and cathelicidins from the granules. In this study, to elucidate the interactions between defensins and cathelicidins in the extracellular environment, we evaluated the individual and synergistic actions of defensins and cathelicidins in the presence of physiological concentration of NaCl (150 mM). Antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were assessed using human and guinea pig defensins and cathelicidins. Furthermore, the effect of defensins and cathelicidins on membrane permeabilization was examined using E. coli ML-35p, as a target organism. In the absence of NaCl, human defensin (HNP-1) and guinea pig defensins (GNCPs) exhibited the antibacterial activities in a dose-dependent manner (0.1-10 microg/ml); however, their activities were completely lost in the presence of 150 mM NaCl. In contrast, the antibacterial activities of human cathelicidin (CAP18/LL-37) and guinea pig cathelicidin (CAP11) were resistant to NaCl. Interestingly, HNP-1 and GNCPs synergized with CAP18/LL-37 and CAP11 to enhance the antibacterial activities against E. coli and S. aureus in the presence of 150 mM NaCl (p<0.05). Similarly, HNP-1 and GNCPs were synergistic with CAP18/LL-37 and CAP11 to potentiate the outer and inner membrane permeabilization of E. coli ML-35p (p<0.05). Together these observations indicate that when extracellularly released from neutrophils, defensins cannot function as antibacterial molecules by themselves, but can synergistically work with cathelicidins to exert the antibacterial activity in the extracellular milieu by augmenting the membrane permeabilization of target cells.

好中球の殺菌ペプチドｄｅｆｅｎｓｉｎとｃａｔｈｅｌｉｃｉｄｉｎの協同作用

Activated neutrophils extracellularly release antibacterial defensins and cathelicidins from the granules. To elucidate the interactions between defensins and cathelicidins in the extracellular environment, we evaluated the individual and synergistic actions of defensins and cathelicidins in the presence of physiological concentration of NaCl (150 mM) . In the absence of NaCl, human defensin (HNP-1) and guinea pig defensins (GNCPs) exhibited the antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in a dose-dependent manner (0.1-10μg/ml) ; however, their activities were completely lost in the presence of 150 mM NaCl. In contrast, the antibacterial activities of human cathelicidin (CAP18/LL-37) and guinea pig cathelicidin (CAP11) were resistant to NaCI. Interestingly, HNP-1 and GNCPs synergized with CAP18/LL-37 and CAP11 to enhance the antibacterial activities against E. coli and S. aureus in the presence of 150 mM NaCl. Similarly, HNP-1 and GNCPs were synergistic with CAP18/LL-37 and CAP11 to potentiate the outer and inner membrane permeabilization of E. coli ML-35p. Together these observations likely indicate that when extracellularly released from neutrophils, defensins cannot function as antibacterial molecules by themselves, but can synergistically work with cathelicidins to exert the antibacterial activity in the extracellular milieu by potentiating the membrane permeabilization of target cells.

Development of protegrins for the treatment and prevention of oral mucositis: Structure–activity relationships of synthetic protegrin analogues

Protegrin antimicrobial peptides possess activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and yeasts. An extensive structure–activity relationship (SAR) study was conducted on several hundred protegrin analogues to gain understanding of the relationship between the primary and secondary structure of the protegrins and their antimicrobial activities, and to identify a protegrin analogue for clinical development. Native sequence protegrins are cationic, amphiphilic peptides that are characterized by the presence of a β-sheet structure that is maintained by two disulfide bridges. The presence of the β-sheet is key to the stability of the protegrin structure; linearized analogues or analogues that have amino acid substitutions that eliminate hydrogen bonding across the β-sheet have reduced activity, especially in the presence of physiological concentrations of NaCl. Also, maintaining amphiphilicity of the β-sheet is key; analogues with substitutions of polar amino acids in the hydrophobic face have reduced activity. Analogues with reduced positive charge tend to be less active, an observation that is more marked for gram-negative than gram-positive bacteria, and may implicate binding to lipopolysaccharide as a key mechanistic step in the killing of gram-negative bacteria. A very large number of amino acid substitutions are tolerated by the protegrin structure, implying that overall structural features such as amphiphilicity, charge, and shape are more important to activity than the presence of specific amino acids. This lack of importance of specific stereochemistry is supported by the fact that completely D-amino acid substituted protegrins are fully potent. Based on the SAR studies, and on the microbiological data from an animal model, one protegrin analogue, IB-367, was selected for clinical development as a topical agent to prevent the oral mucositis associated with cancer therapy. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Biopoly 55: 88–98, 2000

Development of protegrins for the treatment and prevention of oral mucositis: structure-activity relationships of synthetic protegrin analogues.

Protegrin antimicrobial peptides possess activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and yeasts. An extensive structure-activity relationship (SAR) study was conducted on several hundred protegrin analogues to gain understanding of the relationship between the primary and secondary structure of the protegrins and their antimicrobial activities, and to identify a protegrin analogue for clinical development. Native sequence protegrins are cationic, amphiphilic peptides that are characterized by the presence of a beta-sheet structure that is maintained by two disulfide bridges. The presence of the beta-sheet is key to the stability of the protegrin structure; linearized analogues or analogues that have amino acid substitutions that eliminate hydrogen bonding across the beta-sheet have reduced activity, especially in the presence of physiological concentrations of NaCl. Also, maintaining amphiphilicity of the beta-sheet is key; analogues with substitutions of polar amino acids in the hydrophobic face have reduced activity. Analogues with reduced positive charge tend to be less active, an observation that is more marked for gram-negative than gram-positive bacteria, and may implicate binding to lipopolysaccharide as a key mechanistic step in the killing of gram-negative bacteria. A very large number of amino acid substitutions are tolerated by the protegrin structure, implying that overall structural features such as amphiphilicity, charge, and shape are more important to activity than the presence of specific amino acids. This lack of importance of specific stereochemistry is supported by the fact that completely D-amino acid substituted protegrins are fully potent. Based on the SAR studies, and on the microbiological data from an animal model, one protegrin analogue, IB-367, was selected for clinical development as a topical agent to prevent the oral mucositis associated with cancer therapy.

Aggregation of polyA–HIV-1 nucleocapsid protein NCp7 complexes and properties of the aggregates

We have previously shown that in solution, depending on solute and solution conditions, an ordered aggregation of polyA–NCp7 complexes takes place. The kinetic behaviour of the polyA(homoribopolynucleotide)–NCp7(human immunodeficiency virus-I nucleocapsid protein) aggregating system was studied at physiological NaCl concentration (150 mM) using quasielastic light scattering measurements. The kinetic curves were fitted to a power law equation. For the aggregate size growth with time at initial concentrations of NCp7=0.3 μM and nucleotide-to-protein molar ratios of 17 and 50 we obtained for power exponents of 0.15 and 0.23, respectively. On the basis of the aggregate size at which maxima are observed on the light scattering versus time curves we suggested a method for determining the mechanism of aggregation. Thus we found that in the process of polya–NCp7 aggregation, the growth proceeds by fusion of commensurable in size aggregates. The aggregate size dependence on NCp7 concentration showed critical behaviour. The calculated parameters of the power law (rate of growth n and a, related to the aggregate properties) showed in the critical region (0.2–0.3 μM NCp7) a marked change. Electro-optic measurements (electric birefringence and electric light scattering) gave no evidence for the existence of optically anisotropic and/or anisodiametric suspended aggregates under the experimental conditions accessible for the electro-optic instruments used. Quasielastic light scattering and electron microscopy studies showed that at all stages of aggregate growth, under a broad range of experimental conditions, the aggregates were spherical with a unimodal, relatively narrow size distribution. We consider that combining the method suggested by us for studying the mechanism of aggregation with electro-optic and electron microscopy studies might be helpful for modelling the HIV-1 nucleocapsid (composed of genomic RNA–NCp7 complexes) assembly as well as transfectious particles for gene transfer (vectors) or non-infectious particles as candidate vaccines.

Styelins, Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Peptides from the Solitary Tunicate, Styela clava

Two novel phenylalanine-rich antimicrobial peptides, Styelin A and Styelin B, were purified from the hemocytes of Styela clava. The peptides had very similar masses (Styelin A, 3685.8; Styelin B, 3700.6) and amino acid compositions, and at least 17 of their first 20 N-terminal residues were identical. Both Styelins were effective against a panel of gram negative and gram positive bacterial pathogens of humans, usually acting with minimal inhibitory concentrations < 1.5 μg/ml (<0.5 μM), even in the presence of 100 mM NaCl. Styelins also killed marine bacteria, Psychrobacter immobilis and Planococcus citreus, in media containing 0.4 M NaCl. The presence of antimicrobial peptides (Styelins) in tunicate hemocytes is evidence that such molecules are ancient mediators of host defense within the vertebrate lineage. Peptide antibiotics from marine organisms could afford design templates for the development of topical microbicides that manifest broad-spectrum antibacterial activity in the presence of physiological or elevated NaCl concentrations.

Anion binding in bovine corneal stroma

Purpose: The corneal stroma strives to take up water because of the osmotic gradient created by fixed negative charges within the stroma. This fixed negative charge is known to be partly due to glycosaminoglycans and thought to be partly due to bound Cl− ions in the stroma. This study investigates the presence of anion binding within bovine stroma.Methods: Bovine corneas were isolated, de‐epithelialized and de‐endothelialized. The stromal uptake of NaCl, NaAcetate, NaThiocyanate and NaHCO3 solutions at various concentrations was observed using a digital balance. The dry weight of each cornea was noted. Stromal hydrations were calculated and analysed.Results: As the bathing solution concentration increased, for all solutions there was a significant increase in the calculated fixed negative charge values obtained. At physiological concentration of NaCl (150 mM), the fixed negative charge was calculated to be 39.98 ± 1.05 mEq 1−1. For NaAcetate, NaThiocyanate and NaHCO3 at 150 mM the fixed negative charge was calculated to be 38.64 ± 0.51, 43.62 ± 0.51 and 41.98 ± 0.65 mEq 1−1 respectively (n = 10, ± SEM).Conclusions: The degree of anion binding in bovine corneal stroma varies from anion to anion and is dependent on the external bathing solution concentration. At 150 mM, the binding series from this study is NaThiocyanate &gt; NaHCO3 &gt; NaCl &gt; NaAcetate.

Comparative Studies on the Extracellular Release and Biological Activity of Guinea Pig Neutrophil Cationic Antibacterial Polypeptide of 11 kDa (CAP11) and Defensins

Neutrophils contain various antibacterial polypeptides and proteins in the granules. Defensins have been known as the major antimicrobial granular components. Recently, we have purified a novel cationic antibacterial polypeptide of 11 kDa (CAP11) from guinea pig neutrophil granules. In this study, we have examined the extracellular release and biological activity of CAP11, and compared with defensins. CAP11 was extracellularly released from neutrophils by N-formyl Met-Leu-Phe, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, accompanied by the release of lysozyme, a specific and azurophil granule component, without release of β-glucuronidase, an azurophil granule component, whereas defensins were released by phagocytosis, accompanied by the release of β-glucuronidase, suggesting that the localization of CAP11 and defensins is different among neutrophil granules. Defensins increased neutrophil adhesion, and inhibited phagocytosis of opsonized zymosan particles and phagocytosis-associated superoxide anion generation. In contrast, CAP11 did not affect these neutrophil functions. Both CAP11 and defensins possessed the histamine-releasing activities for mast cells, but CAP11 was 10-fold less potent than defensins. CAP11 and defensins showed the antibacterial activities against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. However, the antibacterial activity of defensins was completely lost in the presence of physiological concentration of NaCl (0.15 M), although CAP11 retained the antibacterial activity even in the presence of NaCl. Furthermore, CAP11 exhibited the 10-fold more potent antiretroviral activity than defensins against Moloney murine leukemia viruses. Together these observations indicate that when released from neutrophils, CAP11 likely functions as an antimicrobial molecule in the extracellular milieu, whereas defensins may participate in the modulation of neutrophil function and mast cell histamine release.

好中球の殺菌性ペプチドＣＡＰ１１とデフェンシンの生物活性と遺伝子発現の比較

Defensin has been known as a major antimicrobial component of neutrophil granules. Recently, we have purified a novel cationic antibacterial polypeptide of 11 kDa (CAP11) from guinea pig neutrophilis. In this study, we have compared the biological activity and gene expression between CAP11 and defensin. When stimulated, CAP11 was extracellularly released from neutrophils, accompanied by the release of a specific granule component (lysozyme), whereas defensin was released, accompanied by the release of an azurophil granule component (β-glucoronidase) . Defensin modulated neutrophil functions such as adhesion, phagocytosis and superoxide anion generation. However, CAP11 did not affected the neutrophil functions. Both CAP11 and defensin possessed histamine-releasing activity for mast cells, but CAP11 was 10-fold less potent than defensins. CAP11 exhibited 8-fold more antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli than defensin, and the activity was retained even in the presence of physiological concentration of NaCl, although the activity of defensin was completely lost in the presence of NaCl. Sequence analysis of CAP11 cDNA showed that pre-prosequence of CAP11 was similar to the sequences of cathelicidin family polypeptides. Furthemore, in situ hybridization study revealed that CAP11 mRNA was highly expressed in metamyelocytes among bone marrow cells. In contrast, defensin mRNA was expressed in promyelocytes and myelocytes. Together these observations indicate that CAP11, a member of cathelicidin family, which is synthesized during the late stage of neutrophil maturation and stored possibly in the specific granules, is released from stimulated neutrophils and functions as an antibacterial molecule in the extracellular milieu, whereas defensin released from the azurophil granules likely participate in the modulation of neutrophil functions and mast cell histamine release.

Intramolecular disulfide bonds enhance the antimicrobial and lytic activities of protegrins at physiological sodium chloride concentrations.

Protegrins are 2-kDa antimicrobial peptides that contain 16-18 amino acid residues and two intramolecular disulfide bonds. We studied the contribution of these disulfide bonds to the bactericidal activity of protegrins in physiological concentrations of NaCl by comparing protegrin PG-1 with variants that lacked one or both cysteine disulfides. Whereas the bactericidal and liposome-lytic properties of protegrin PG-1 were enhanced by adding 100 mM NaCl to the phosphate-buffered medium, NaCl addition strongly inhibited the effects of its linearized, disulfide-free variant, [A6, A8, A13, A15]protegrin-1. Whereas protegrin PG-1 manifested beta-sheet structure by CD (circular dichroism) and ATR-FTIR (attenuated-total-reflectance-Fourier-transform-infrared) spectroscopy in buffer or membrane-mimetic environments, [A6, A8, A13, A15]protegrin-1 manifested disordered structure in phosphate buffer and alpha-helical characteristics in membrane-mimetic environments. Both single-disulfide protegrin variants, [A8, A13]protegrin-1 and [A6, A15]protegrin-1, assumed beta-sheet conformations with liposomes that simulated bacterial membranes, and both retained substantial bactericidal activity when 100 mM NaCl was present. These findings demonstrate that the intramolecular disulfide bonds of protegrins are required for their antiparallel beta-sheet conformation in membrane-mimetic environments and for their potent antimicrobial activity in media containing NaCl concentrations comparable to those found in serum and extracellular fluids.

Purification of the 11- and 5-kDa Antibacterial Polypeptides from Guinea Pig Neutrophils

It has been known that neutrophils contain various antimicrobial components in the granules, which contribute to the oxygen-independent host defense mechanism. In this study, we have isolated the two antimicrobial polypeptides from guinea pig neutrophil granules. Urea–SDS–PAGE analysis revealed that the molecular masses of the polypeptides were 11 and 5 kDa under nonreducing conditions. Under reducing conditions, the molecular mass of the 5-kDa polypeptide did not change, whereas the molecular mass of the 11-kDa polypeptide changed to about 5 kDa, suggesting that the 11-kDa polypeptide is a dimer composed of 5-kDa subunits joined with a disulfide bond. The amino acid composition and sequence data indicated that the 5-kDa subunit of the 11-kDa polypeptide contained 9 lysine, 8 arginine, and 1 cysteine residues and that the 11-kDa polypeptide was a homodimer of G1LRKKFRKTRKRIQKLGRKIGKTGRKVWK AWREYGQIPYPCRI43(4599 Da) joined with one disulfide bond. Amino acid sequence of the 11-kDa polypeptide showed partial homology (19–30%) to the active peptides of rabbit and human cationic antimicrobial proteins of 18 kDa (CAP18), suggesting the 11-kDa polypeptide might be a homologue of CAP18. In contrast, the amino acid analysis of the 5-kDa antibacterial polypeptide revealed that the polypeptide was composed of 41 amino acids (5007 Da) containing 7 lysine, 10 arginine, and 2 cystine residues. However, sequence analysis indicated that the N-terminus of the 5-kDa polypeptide was likely blocked. The 11- and 5-kDa polypeptides showed almost the same antibacterial activities; ED50values were 30–35 nMagainstEscherichia coliand 90–120 nMagainstStaphylococcus aureus,which were 4- to 20-fold lower than those of defensins. Furthermore, the 11- and 5-kDa polypeptide retained the antibacterial activities even at the physiological concentration of NaCl (0.15M), although the antibacterial activity of defensin was completely lost in the presence of NaCl.

Differential effects of NaCl concentration on the constitutive activity of the thyrotropin and the luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptors

The TSH receptor (TSHR) and the LH CG receptor (LHR) are members of the family of G protein-coupled receptors. Recently, point mutations conferring constitutive activity to the TSHR and LHR have been observed as a cause of toxic adenoma and familial/sporadic male pseudo-precocious puberty, respectively. When evaluated by transfection in COS-7 cells the wildtype (wt) TSHR displays definite constitutive activity towards Gs-dependent adenylylcyclase stimulation, while available evidence shows that the LHR does not. In order to compare the constitutive activity of both receptors, we performed functional studies in COS-7 cells using different assay conditions. Human TSHR and LHR cDNAs subcloned in the expression vector pSVL were transiently expressed in COS-7 cells and cAMP production was determined following incubation in a medium containing physiological concentration of NaCl [isotonic (NaCl)] or in the same medium without NaCl [hypotonic (NaCl −)] or where NaCl was replaced by an isoosmolar concentration of sucrose [isotonic (sucrose)]. Cells transfected with the TSHR showed higher basal cAMP levels over cells transfected with pSVL in all conditions tested. The effect was stronger when cells were incubated in isotonic (sucrose) buffer. Cells expressing LHR exhibited a minimal increase of cAMP levels over cells transfected with pSVL in isotonic (NaCl) buffer; however, a marked increase in basal cAMP levels was observed when cells were assayed in hypotonic (NaCl −) or isotonic (sucrose) buffers. Varying the pH or incubation temperature was without effect on the results obtained with both receptors. Our data show that despite extensive sequence similarity, the LH and TSH receptors differ markedly in their basal activity. The differential sensitivity of both receptors to low NaCl concentrations, suggests that the unliganded TSH receptor is less constrained than its LH homolog and may be more susceptible to activation by a wide spectrum of mutations.

Microinjection of intact MAP-4 and fragments induces changes of the cytoskeleton in PtK2 cells.

The molecular cloning and sequencing of microtubule-associated protein (MAP)-4 identified microtubule-binding repeats near the C-terminus and a projection domain near the N-terminus. Although it is well known that MAP-4 stimulates the assembly of and stabilizes microtubules (MT) in vitro, the function of MAP-4 in vivo is still unclear. In this study, we examined the function of MAP-4 in the cytoskeleton both in vitro and in vivo. Intact MAP-4 was prepared from bovine adrenal cortex, and the truncated fragments of the N- and the C-terminal halves (named NR and PA4 fragments, respectively) were expressed in Escherichia coli and isolated. In vitro studies demonstrated that in a solution containing a physiological concentration of NaCl, intact MAP-4 and the PA4 fragment were bound to MT, but not to F-actin. The NR fragment was not bound to MT or to F-actin. We also examined the MT changes in PtK2 cells after they had been microinjected with intact MAP-4 and the truncated fragments of PA4 and NR. The injection of intact MAP-4 or PA4 into the cells induced an increase in the number of cytoplasmic MT, as well as MT bundling. The NR fragment did not affect the MT array. Injected MAP-4 and PA4 were associated with the increased MT. In addition, injection with MAP-4 and PA4 stabilized MT in relation to treatment with the MT-disrupting drug, nocodazole. These results indicated that intact MAP-4 and the PA4 fragment promoted MT assembly and stabilized MT, by binding to MT, in vivo as well as in vitro. Further, the injection of the PA4 fragment induced an increase in stress fibers. However, these proteins did not show any association with the stress fibers. Our results suggest that there is an indirect effect of MAP-4 on stress fibers rather than a direct interaction between MAP-4 and stress fibers.

Determination of Ion Activity Coefficients and Fixed Charge Density in Cartilage with23Na Magnetic Resonance Microscopy

The sodium concentration and the physicochemical state of sodium ions in biological polyelectrolytes may be an indirect measure of the macromolecular matrix integrity. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) microscopy was used to measure the sodium concentration and to estimate the cartilage matrix fixed charge density (FCD) in control, acid-neutralized, and enzyme-digested bovine nasal cartilage (BNC), a model for human cartilage. The mean ion activity coefficient of sodium in cartilage was calculated from the measured tissue sodium concentration as a function of external NaCl concentration and compared with the predictions of the Debye−Hückel and the modified Manning theories. Our results show that (1) the FCD in bovine nasal cartilage (at physiological NaCl concentrations) is in the range of 0.25−0.35 m, (2) the sodium content measured by NMR microscopy reflects indirectly the changes of FCD induced by changes in pH and enzymatic digestion, and (3) the measured activity coefficient for NaCl in the bovine nasal cartilage matrix is significantly lower than that of an ionic solution of the same salt concentration. An extension of the model developed by Manning for polyelectrolytes is in good qualitative agreement with our experimental results which showed a decrease in the mean activity coefficient with decreased reservoir concentration.

The adult human cerebellum is a target of the neuroendocrine system involved in the circadian timing

In an investigation aimed at comprehensive mapping of the adult human brain with respect to receptor sites for the pineal hormone melatonin, we consistently observed specific binding in the cerebellum. Autoradiography and in vitro binding analysis with 125I-labeled melatonin were used to examine the location and the properties of these binding sites. In all cerebellar lobes, highest-density specific binding was localized to the external zone of the molecular layer. The binding was rapid, saturable, displaceable, specific and of high affinity. Physiological concentrations of NaCl decreased the affinity, while presence of calcium ions promoted it. The non-hydrolyzable GTP analog, GTP гS, inhibited binding in a dose-dependent manner and provoked a shift towards low affinity. The results strongly suggest that these binding sites may be functional melatonin receptors, and indicate that the adult human cerebellum is a target of melatonin, the pineal hormone involved in the control of the circadian timing.

Hormonal stimulation of Mg2+ uptake in hepatocytes. Regulation by plasma membrane and intracellular organelles

Collagenase dispersed rat liver hepatocytes release Mg2+ when stimulated with norepinephrine or accumulate Mg2+ when stimulated with vasopressin, respectively. Mg2+ fluxes in either direction account for a net loss or gain of approximately 10% of total cell magnesium and are rapidly reversible. Both stimulated Mg2+ efflux and Mg2+ influx require physiological concentration of extracellular NaCl and Ca2+. In the absence of extracellular Na+, Mg2+ efflux, but not influx, can be observed in the presence of extracellular Cl-. Under these conditions, the efflux is inhibited by the Cl-/HCO3- exchanger inhibitor 4,4'-dinitrostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid. In hepatocytes, Mg2+ influx, but not efflux, is completely inhibited by thapsigargin, a specific inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase. Several lines of evidence, such as measurements of cytosolic Ca2+ or of cytosolic Ca2+ buffering, indicate that the effect of thapsigargin in inhibiting Mg2+ influx could not be explained by an increase in cytosolic Ca2+. Instead, the inhibition of hepatocyte Mg2+ influx was found to be the result of the depletion of the Ca2+ stored within the endoplasmic reticulum.

Effects of Substance P on the Binding of Agonists to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor of Torpedo Electroplaque

The effect of the neuropeptide substance P on the binding of the cholinergic ligands to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of Torpedo electroplaque membranes was examined at a physiological concentration of NaCl (150 mM). Substance P had no effect on the initial rate of 125I-alpha-bungarotoxin binding at concentrations of < 100 microM. The peptide did not bind to the high-affinity local anesthetic site but allosterically modulated [3H]phencyclidine binding, positively in the absence of agonist and negatively in the presence of agonist. Substance P increased the apparent affinity of the cholinergic agonists carbamylcholine and acetylcholine at equilibrium. The effect of substance P on the equilibrium binding of [3H]acetylcholine was examined directly, and the peptide appeared to increase the affinity of the binding of the second molecule of agonist, with no effect on the binding of the first. This indicates that substance P can affect the cooperative interactions between agonist binding sites. Substance P appeared to increase the rate of carbamylcholine-induced desensitization; however, the data are also consistent with an allosteric mechanism that does not involve the desensitized state. To attempt to differentiate between these mechanisms, the rates of recovery were determined after exposure to peptide and/or agonist. The kinetics of recovery are consistent with stabilization of the desensitized state by substance P if the peptide remains bound long enough to allow rapid recovery to the low-affinity state. However, an allosteric modulation of agonist binding that does not involve the desensitized state cannot be ruled out.

Effects of Heparin and Other Glycosaminoglycans on Elastin Production by Cultured Neonatal Rat Lung Fibroblasts

Proteoglycans are important structural elements of the extracellular matrix, and may contribute to the dynamic architecture of the lung and also influence pulmonary gas and solute exchange. The potential for proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans to modulate the synthesis and deposition of elastin, another important extracellular matrix component of the lung, has not been established. Therefore the effects of glycosaminoglycans on the steady-state level of elastin mRNA, the incorporation of [ 3H]valine into tropoelastin, the distribution of soluble elastin in the medium and cell layer, and insoluble elastin deposition have been examined using cultured neonatal rat lung fibroblasts. Heparin decreases the soluble elastin content of the culture medium while increasing the soluble elastin content of the cell layer. This altered partitioning of soluble elastin is associated with an increase in steady-state elastin mRNA and an increase in the deposition of insoluble elastin in the extracellular matrix. Some of these effects may result from the binding of heparin to soluble elastin at physiological concentrations of NaCl. The galactosamine-containing glycosaminoglycans, chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate, differ from heparin in that they increase the quantity of soluble elastin in the culture medium and decrease the deposition of insoluble elastin in the extracellular matrix. Proteoglycans, which are present in most elastic tissues, may participate in the regulation of elastin synthesis and deposition during periods of new elastin formation.