Physical Templates Research Articles

Carbon-supported TiO2–Au hybrids as catalysts for the electrogeneration of hydrogen peroxide: Investigating the effect of TiO2 shape

TiO2–Au hybrid materials are promising as electrocatalysts for the in situ production of H2O2 via the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). However, the synthesis of uniform and well-controlled TiO2–Au materials, which is crucial to establish morphology–performance relationships, remains challenging. We describe herein the synthesis of hybrid materials composed of TiO2 colloidal spheres and wires decorated with Au nanoparticles. We employed TiO2 colloidal spheres and wires as physical templates for Au deposition, which enabled the uniform deposition of Au NPs with monodisperse sizes over the TiO2 surface. Then, the electrocatalytic activities toward the electrogeneration of H2O2 by the ORR were investigated as a function of the TiO2 shape and TiO2–Au loading on Vulcan XC-72R carbon. We found that the electrocatalytic activities were strongly dependent on the TiO2 shape and TiO2–Au loading in the catalysts. The utilization of TiO2 colloidal spheres led to higher activities relative to pure carbon and commercial Pt/C, and the optimal TiO2–Au loading corresponded to 3%. Conversely, the TiO2 wires led to detrimental effects over the catalytic performances for all hybrid materials. These results could be explained based on the morphological and conductivity differences among TiO2–Au/C electrode materials. We believe the results described herein can have important implication for the design of TiO2-based hybrid nanostructures for the electrogeneration of H2O2 by the ORR.

Abiotic ligation of DNA oligomers templated by their liquid crystal ordering.

It has been observed that concentrated solutions of short DNA oligomers develop liquid crystal ordering as the result of a hierarchically structured supramolecular self-assembly. In mixtures of oligomers with various degree of complementarity, liquid crystal microdomains are formed via the selective aggregation of those oligomers that have a sufficient degree of duplexing and propensity for physical polymerization. Here we show that such domains act as fluid and permeable microreactors in which the order-stabilized molecular contacts between duplex terminals serve as physical templates for their chemical ligation. In the presence of abiotic condensing agents, liquid crystal ordering markedly enhances ligation efficacy, thereby enhancing its own phase stability. The coupling between order-templated ligation and selectivity provided by supramolecular ordering enables an autocatalytic cycle favouring the growth of DNA chains, up to biologically relevant lengths, from few-base long oligomers. This finding suggests a novel scenario for the abiotic origin of nucleic acids.

Assessment of regional variation in streamflow responses to urbanization and the persistence of physiography.

Aquatic ecosystems are sensitive to the modification of hydrologic regimes, experiencing declines in stream health as the streamflow regime is altered during urbanization. This study uses streamflow records to quantify the type and magnitude of hydrologic changes across urbanization gradients in nine U.S. cities (Atlanta, GA, Baltimore, MD, Boston, MA, Detroit, MI, Raleigh, NC, St. Paul, MN, Pittsburgh, PA, Phoenix, AZ, and Portland, OR) in two physiographic settings. Results indicate similar development trajectories among urbanization gradients, but heterogeneity in the type and magnitude of hydrologic responses to this apparently uniform urban pattern. Similar urban patterns did not confer similar hydrologic function. Study watersheds in landscapes with level slopes and high soil permeability had less frequent high-flow events, longer high-flow durations, lower flashiness response, and lower flow maxima compared to similarly developed watersheds in landscape with steep slopes and low soil permeability. Our results suggest that physical characteristics associated with level topography and high water-storage capacity buffer the severity of hydrologic changes associated with urbanization. Urbanization overlain upon a diverse set of physical templates creates multiple pathways toward hydrologic impairment; therefore, we caution against the use of the urban homogenization framework in examining geophysically dominated processes.

Recycling nanowire templates for multiplex templating synthesis: a green and sustainable strategy.

Template-directed synthesis of nanostructures has been emerging as one of the most important synthetic methodologies. A pristine nanotemplate is usually chemically transformed into other compounds and sacrificed after templating or only acts as an inert physical template to support the new components. If a nanotemplate is costly or toxic as waste, to recycle such a nanotemplate becomes highly desirable. Recently, ultrathin tellurium nanowires (TeNWs) have been demonstrated as versatile chemical or physical templates for the synthesis of a diverse family of uniform 1D nanostructures. However, ultrathin TeNWs as template are usually costly and are discarded as toxic waste in ionic species after chemical reactions or erosion. To solve the above problem, we conceptually demonstrate that such a nanotemplate can be economically recycled from waste solutions and repeatedly used as template.

Application of 3D printing in treatment of traumatic knee varus deformity: a pilot study

Objective To explore the clinical effect of using 3D printing in the treatment of genua varus deformity. Methods From September 2010 to April 2013, 27 cases of genua varus were admitted. They were 15 men and 12 women, with an average age of 37.8 years. The deformity affected the left side in 10 cases and the right in 17, with an average angle of 20.1°. All patients were examined by lamellar CT scan to harvest the original data of lower limbs. Three dimensional reconstruction of bone models was performed by software Materialise Mimics 10.01. 3D models were imported into software 3-matic 6.1 to measure the angles of varus, femorotibial angle, and the medial interspace of knee joint. The position and angle of osteotomy were precisely determined according to the results of computer-aided measurement. The cloud data of surface points were collected to design individual osteotomy-assisting templates by software Geomagic Studio 11.0, and the virtual procedures of the osteotomy and reconstruction of genua varus were simulated in software Magics 9.55. Physical templates were manufactured using 3D printing technology. In the actual operation, the best location of tibial osteotomy was determined according to the template. After osteotomy, internal fixation was performed using a steel plate and screws. X-ray examinations of bilateral lower limbs were conducted preoperation, 3 and 12 months postoperation. The femorotibial angles and the medial interspaces of knee joint were measured on postoperative X-ray films of lower limbs. The Hospital for Special Surgery (HSS) knee score was used to evaluate the preoperative and postoperative functions of the knee joint. Results All 27 patients were followed up from 7 to 36 months (average, 23.4 months). The bony union time was 3 to 5 months (average, 3.3 months). The femorotibial angles and the medial interspaces of knee joint at 3 and 12 months postoperation were significantly greater than those at preoperation, the average HSS score at 12 months postoperation was significantly higher than that at preoperation and 3 months postoperation, and the average HSS score at 3 months postoperation was significantly higher than that at preoperation (P < 0.05). According to the HSS scores at the last follow-up, 21 cases were excellent, 4 cases good, and 2 cases fair, giving an excellent to good rate of 92.6%. Conclusion 3D printing technology can be used along with computer-aided design to manufacture an individualized osteotomy-assisting template which greatly improves the accuracy of bone cutting and ensures better lines of force at the lower limb in the treatment of traumatic knee varus deformity. Key words: Surgery, computer-assisted; Knee joint; Abnormalities; Osteotomy; 3D printing technology

A general design strategy for block copolymer directed self-assembly patterning of integrated circuits contact holes using an alphabet approach.

Directed self-assembly (DSA) is a promising lithography candidate for technology nodes beyond 14 nm. Researchers have shown contact hole patterning for random logic circuits using DSA with small physical templates. This paper introduces an alphabet approach that uses a minimal set of small physical templates to pattern all contacts configurations on integrated circuits. We illustrate, through experiments, a general and scalable template design strategy that links the DSA material properties to the technology node requirements.

Large-scale fabrication and application of magnetite coated Ag NW-core water-dispersible hybrid nanomaterials.

In this work, we report a large scale synthetic procedure that allows attachment of magnetite nanoparticles onto Ag NWs in situ, which was conducted in a triethylene glycol (TREG) solution with iron acetylacetonate and Ag NWs as starting materials. The as-prepared Ag NW/Fe3O4 NP composites are well characterized by SEM, TEM, XRD, XPS, FT-IR, and VSM techniques. It was found that the mass ratio of iron acetylacetonate to Ag NWs plays a crucial role in controlling the amount of magnetite nanoparticles decorated on the Ag NWs. The resulting Ag NW/Fe3O4 NP composites exhibit superparamagnetic properties at room temperature, and can be well dispersed in aqueous and organic solutions, which is greatly beneficial for their application and functionality. Thus, the as-prepared magnetic silver nanowires show good catalytic activity, using the catalytic reduction of methylene blue (MB) as a model reaction. Furthermore, the Ag NW/Fe3O4 NP composites can be functionalized with polydopamine (Pdop), resorcinol-formaldehyde resin (PFR), and SiO2, respectively, in aqueous/ethanol solution. Meanwhile they can also be coated with polyphosphazene (PZS) in organic solution, resulting in a unique nanocable with well-defined core shell structures. Besides, taking Ag NW/Fe3O4@SiO2 as an example, a hollow magnetic silica nanotube can be obtained with the use of Ag NWs as physical templates and a solution of ammonium and H2O2. These can greatly improve the application of the Ag NW/Fe3O4 NP composites. The as-synthesized above nanocomposites have high potential for applications in the fields of polymers, wastewater treatment, sensors, and biomaterials.

Bistability of mangrove forests and competition with freshwater plants

Halophytic communities such as mangrove forests and buttonwood hammocks tend to border freshwater plant communities as sharp ecotones. Most studies attribute this purely to underlying physical templates, such as groundwater salinity gradients caused by tidal flux and topography. However, a few recent studies hypothesize that self-reinforcing feedback between vegetation and vadose zone salinity are also involved and create a bistable situation in which either halophytic dominated habitat or freshwater plant communities may dominate as alternative stable states. Here, we revisit the bistability hypothesis and demonstrate the mechanisms that result in bistability. We demonstrate with remote sensing imagery the sharp boundaries between freshwater hardwood hammock communities in southern Florida and halophytic communities such as buttonwood hammocks and mangroves. We further document from the literature how transpiration of mangroves and freshwater plants respond differently to vadose zone salinity, thus altering the salinity through feedback. Using mathematical models, we show how the self-reinforcing feedback, together with physical template, controls the ecotones between halophytic and freshwater communities. Regions of bistability along environmental gradients of salinity have the potential for large-scale vegetation shifts following pulse disturbances such as hurricane tidal surges in Florida, or tsunamis in other regions. The size of the region of bistability can be large for low-lying coastal habitat due to the saline water table, which extends inland due to salinity intrusion. We suggest coupling ecological and hydrologic processes as a framework for future studies.

Content analysis of physical examination templates in electronic health records using SNOMED CT

ObjectivesMost electronic health record (EHR) systems are built on proprietary information models and terminology, which makes achieving semantic interoperability a challenge. Solving interoperability problems requires well-defined standards. In contrast, the need to support clinical work practice requires a local customization of EHR systems. Consequently, contrasting goals may be evident in EHR template design because customization means that local EHR organizations can define their own templates, whereas standardization implies consensus at some level. To explore the complexity of balancing these two goals, this study analyzes the differences and similarities between templates in use today. MethodsA similarity analysis was developed on the basis of SNOMED CT. The analysis was performed on four physical examination templates from Denmark and Sweden. The semantic relationships in SNOMED CT were used to quantify similarities and differences. Moreover, the analysis used these identified similarities to investigate the common content of a physical examination template. ResultsThe analysis showed that there were both similarities and differences in physical examination templates, and the size of the templates varied from 18 to 49 fields. In the SNOMED CT analysis, exact matches and terminology similarities were represented in all template pairs. The number of exact matches ranged from 7 to 24. Moreover, the number of unrelated fields differed a lot from 1/18 to 22/35. Cross-country comparisons tended to have more unrelated content than within-country comparisons. On the basis of identified similarities, it was possible to define the common content of a physical examination. Nevertheless, a complete view on the physical examination required the inclusion of both exact matches and terminology similarities. ConclusionsThis study revealed that a core set of items representing the physical examination templates can be generated when the analysis takes into account not only exact matches but also terminology similarities. This core set of items could be a starting point for standardization and semantic interoperability. However, both unmatched terms and terminology matched terms pose a challenge for standardization. Future work will include using local templates as a point of departure in standardization to see if local requirements can be maintained in a standardized framework.

Deviation analysis of C2 translaminar screw placement assisted by a novel rapid prototyping drill template: a cadaveric study

The goal of this study is to evaluate the accuracy of patient-specific CT-based rapid prototype drill templates for C2 translaminar screw insertion. Volumetric CT scanning was performed in 32 cadaveric cervical spines. Using computer software, the authors constructed drill templates that fit onto the posterior surface of the C2 vertebrae with drill guides to match the slope of the patient's lamina. Thirty-two physical templates were created from the computer models using a rapid prototyping machine. The drill templates were used to guide drilling of the lamina and post-operative CT images were obtained. The entry point and direction of the planned and inserted screws were measured and compared. Sixty-four C2 translaminar screws were placed without violating the cortical bone of a single lamina. The bilateral average transverse angle of intended and actual screw for C2TLS was 56.60 ± 2.22°, 56.38 ± 2.51°, 56.65 ± 2.24°, 56.39 ± 2.45°. The bilateral mean coronal angle of the planned and actual screw for C2TLS was 0°, 0°, -0.07 ± 0.32°, 0.12 ± 0.57°. The average displacement of the entry point of the superior and inferior C2TLS in the x, y, z axis was 0.27 ± 0.85, 0.49 ± 1.46, -0.28 ± 0.69, 0.43 ± 0.88, 0.38 ± 1.51, 0.23 ± 0.64 mm. The small deviations seen are likely due to human error in the form of small variations in the surgical technique and use of software to design the prototype. This technology improves the safety profile of this fixation technique and should be further studied in clinical applications.

Template-free synthesis of vertically oriented tellurium nanowires via a galvanic displacement reaction

The scalable, high-throughput, cost-effective synthesis of high-quality tetragonal tellurium (t-Te) nanowires by the galvanic displacement reaction of Si on a 4-in. Si wafer is demonstrated. This method does not require any heterogeneous seeds, physical templates, or surfactants. In addition, because seed nucleation and growth are both instantaneous, the synthesized nanowires had uniform lengths across the substrate. Furthermore, the effects of the deposition conditions, including the solution composition and reaction time and temperature, on the morphologies, dimensions, and crystallinities of the Te nanowires were analyzed to investigate the growth mechanism. The synthesized t-Te nanowires exhibited excellent piezoelectric properties, with the output current being as high as −75.0nA.

ChemInform Abstract: Templated Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials

AbstractReview: 431 refs.

Templated synthesis of nanostructured materials

Templating is one of the most important techniques for the controlled synthesis of nanostructured materials. This powerful tool uses a pre-existing guide with desired nanoscale features to direct the formation of nanomaterials into forms that are otherwise difficult to obtain. As a result, templated synthesis is capable of producing nanostructures with unique structures, morphologies and properties. In this review, we summarize the general principles of templated synthesis and cover recent developments in this area. As a wide variety of synthesis techniques are utilized to produce nanomaterials using template-based methods, the discussion is organized around the various types of common templates. We examine the use of both physical and chemical hard colloidal templates, soft templates, and other non-colloidal templates, followed by our perspective on the state of the field and potential future directions.

Emerged or imposed: a theory on the role of physical templates and self‐organisation for vegetation patchiness

In this article, we develop a unifying framework for the understanding of spatial vegetation patterns in heterogeneous landscapes. While much recent research has focused on self-organised vegetation the prevailing view is still that biological patchiness is mostly due to top-down control by the physical landscape template, disturbances or predators. We suggest that vegetation patchiness in real landscapes is controlled both by the physical template and by self-organisation simultaneously, and introduce a conceptual model for the relative roles of the two mechanisms. The model considers four factors that control whether vegetation patchiness is emerged or imposed: soil patch size, plant size, resource input and resource availability. The last three factors determine the plant-patch size, and the plant-to-soil patch size ratio determines the impact of self-organisation, which becomes important when this ratio is sufficiently small. A field study and numerical simulations of a mathematical model support the conceptual model and give further insight by providing examples of self-organised and template-controlled vegetation patterns co-occurring in the same landscape. We conclude that real landscapes are generally mixtures of template-induced and self-organised patchiness. Patchiness variability increases due to source-sink resource relations, and decreases for species of larger patch sizes.

Backward tracking of gas chemistry measurements at Erebus volcano

Erebus volcano in Antarctica offers an exceptional opportunity to probe the dynamics of degassing – its behavior is characterized by an active lava lake through which sporadic Strombolian eruptions occur. Here, we develop a framework for interpreting contrasting degassing signatures measured at high temporal resolution, which integrates physical scenarios of gas/melt separation into a thermodynamic model that includes new volatile solubility data for Erebus phonolite. In this widely applicable framework, the measured gas compositions are backtracked from surface to depth according to physical templates involving various degrees of separation of gas and melt during ascent. Overall, explosive signatures can be explained by large bubbles (gas slugs) rising slowly in equilibrium from at least 20 bars but at most a few hundred bars in a magmatic column closer to the stagnant end‐member than the convecting end‐member. The span of explosive signatures can be due to various departure depths and/or slug acceleration below a few tens of bars. Results also reveal that explosive gases last equilibrated at temperatures up to 300°C colder than the lake due to rapid gas expansion just prior to bursting. This picture (individual rise of gas and melt batches from a single, potentially very shallow phonolitic source) offers an alternative to the conclusions of previous work based on a similar data set at Erebus, according to which differences between quiescent and explosive gas signatures are due to the decompression of two deep, volatile‐saturated sources that mixed to various degrees (phonolite at 1–3 kbar and basanite at 5–8 kbar).

Differences in Plant Species Composition as Evidence of Alternate States in the Sagebrush Steppe

State-and-transition models (STMs), conceptual models of vegetation change based on alternate state theory, are increasingly applied as tools for land management decision-making. As STMs are created throughout the United States, it is crucial to ensure that they are supported by ecological evidence. Plant species composition reflects ecosystem processes that are difficult to measure and may be a useful indicator of alternate states. This study aims to create data-driven STMs based on plant species composition for two ecological sites (Claypan and Mountain Loam) in northwestern Colorado sagebrush steppe. We sampled 76 plots with different management and disturbance histories. Drawing on the hierarchical approach currently taken to build STMs, we hypothesized that A) differences in species composition between the two ecological sites would be related to environmental factors and B) differences in species composition within each ecological site would be related to management and disturbance history. Relationships among species composition, site history, and environmental variables were evaluated using multivariate statistics. We found that between ecological sites, species composition was related to differences in soil texture, supporting Hypothesis A and the creation of separate STMs for each site. Within ecological sites, species composition was related to site history and also to environmental variation. This finding partially supports Hypothesis B and the identification of alternate states using species composition, but also suggests that these ecological sites are not uniform physical templates upon which plant community dynamics play out. This data-driven, plant species–based approach created two objective, credible STMs with states and transitions that are consistent with the sagebrush steppe literature. Our findings support the hierarchical view of landscapes currently applied in building STMs. An approach that acknowledges environmental heterogeneity within ecological sites is necessary to help define finer-resolution ecological sites and elucidate cases in which specific abiotic conditions make transitions between states more likely.

VIRTUAL 3D PLANNING OF PELVIC FRACTURE REDUCTION AND IMPLANT PLACEMENT

In pelvic surgery, CT images are commonly used for diagnosis and surgical planning. The images are often displayed and manipulated in a 2D environment, which is insufficient owing to the complex geometry of a pelvic structure. Moreover, a pre-bend of the reconstruction plates is necessary, but difficult to complete, because of the lack of appropriate templates. In this study, an integrated preoperative planning system is developed to provide 3D models and physical templates so that the surgeon can simulate and observe his planning and prepare better-fitted curved plates before surgery. The proposed method can be divided into the following four stages: 3D display, bone segmentation, bone reduction, and implant placement. As for the designed curved plates, they can be fabricated as templates by means of rapid prototyping technology. Several examples, including artificial bones, real CT images and real pelvic surgery, have been presented to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method.

Multimetallic Alloy Nanotubes with Nanoporous Framework

One-dimensional nanotubes (NTs) that consist of multiple metallic components are promising platforms for potential applications, whereas only a few synthetic methods of multimetallic NTs have been reported to date. In the present work, we developed a general synthesis route for the production of uniform multicomponent one-dimensional tubular nanostructures with various combinations of Pt, Pd, and Ag by using ZnO nanowires (NWs) as sacrificial templates. The ZnO NWs serve not only as physical templates but also as nucleation sites for the reduction of metal precursors, and thereby several metal precursors could be reduced simultaneously to produce multimetallic NTs. By using this approach, Pt-Pd, Pt-Ag, and Pd-Ag binary alloy NTs, and even Pt-Pd-Ag ternary alloy NTs could be successfully prepared. The prepared Pt-Pd binary alloy NTs exhibited improved electrocatalytic activity and stability toward ethanol oxidation due to their characteristic tubular morphology with well-interconnected nanoporous framework and synergism between two constituent metals. Furthermore, our approach can facilitate the fabrication of patterned multimetallic NT arrays on solid and flexible substrates with strong mechanical robustness. The present templating method does not require any extra steps to remove templates or additional surfactants which are often required to control the shape of nanostructures. This strategy offers a convenient, versatile, low-cost, and highly valuable approach to the fabrication of multimetallic nanostructures with various components and compositions.

Abstract 159: Acute Ischemic Stroke Quality Indicators: Implementation of Evidence-Based Practice to Improve Compliance

Background and Purpose: Stroke is the leading cause of adult disability in the United States. Compliance with the stroke quality indicators reinforces that a stroke center is adhering to the evidence based standards of care in acute stroke patients. Hardwiring a process in the delivery of care during hospitalization will ensure improved compliance of these quality indicators. Methods: A core multidisciplinary team was formed that included neurointensivists, neurologist, neurointerventional radiologist, pharmacist, emergency room and neuro intensive care staff along with neuroscience administration staff. Directors of the various services impacted by the stroke patients were invited on an ad hoc basis. Retrospective chart reviews were performed to collect data on a monthly basis for the following quality indicators: DVT prophylaxis Discharged on antithrombotics Patients with a-fib receiving anticoagulation Thrombolytic therapy administration Antithrombotic by end of day 2 Discharged on cholesterol meds Dysphagia screening Stroke education Smoking cessation education Assessed for Rehab Overall compliance with these indicators was on target but areas for improvement were noted in the following areas: stroke education, discharged on statin, thrombolytic therapy administration and patients with a-fib receiving anticoagulation. Aggressive action plans for each of these areas were developed and implemented. Initiatives included standardized electronic order sets, electronic admission, consult, history and physical templates with the quality indicators listed. Presentation of compliance results with a review of outliers were part of monthly section meetings. In order to understand process deviations further discussions with section chiefs resulted in investigation and resolution of issues that led to the variances. Hiring of a research registered nurse and a stroke coordinator were added to the existing stroke service team. Results: Dramatic improvement was achieved with no indicator falling below &lt;85.2% (85.2 out 100) for an entire year. Gold Plus achievement level with the American Stroke Association was achieved within a three year period. Target Stroke Honor Role was also achieved during this time period. Conclusions: A cohesive project team was able to identify barriers, recommend process changes and ensure the implementation of change within the institution. Data collection and process revision is ongoing

Phreatic groundwater ecosystems: research frontiers for freshwater ecology

Summary1. Phreatic ecosystems (saturated groundwater ecosystems in porous and fractured‐rock aquifers) are research frontiers for freshwater ecology. Many ecological issues that have been explored at length in surface‐water and hyporheic systems are unexplored in phreatic systems. Phreatic ecology is currently dominated by observational studies rather than experiments and focuses on pattern‐detection and description, rather than hypothesis‐testing and mechanistic explanations. These are characteristics of science disciplines in early developmental stages.2. Progress in phreatic ecology has been impeded by logistical problems including poor access, limited information about ecosystem boundaries and spatial heterogeneity, a lack of detailed habitat templates, limited taxonomic and biogeographic knowledge and the difficulties of field experiments. Each of these problems is assessed in this review, along with analytical techniques, instruments and concepts that may help researchers overcome them.3. Access to undisturbed phreatic systems is generally limited to narrow zones around wells. Limited access and sparse well arrays make detecting ecological patterns and relationships and delineating ecosystem boundaries difficult. Spatial resolution can be increased by installing wells in configurations suited to specific research topics; geostatistical methods are available for positioning new wells and optimising interpolation between them.4. Phreatic systems are characterised by multi‐scaled spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Lithofacies aggregations, buried fluvial bedforms, rock fractures and other geomorphic elements create structural and hydraulic heterogeneity, which lead in turn to spatial variation in solutes, biota and biogeochemical processes. The structural and hydraulic heterogeneity of study areas can be characterised and mapped with geophysical surveys and groundwater flow models. These models can help to identify flowpaths, recharge zones and aquifer boundaries and provide ecologically relevant hydrological variables.5. Physical habitat templates and classifications are needed to explain variation in phreatic populations and communities. A candidate classification system is proposed, based on environmental factors that govern the distribution and quality of groundwater habitats: climate, lithology, aquifer, confinement, recharge, hydrofacies and flowpath.6. Many phreatic species and higher‐level taxa remain undescribed, and the taxonomic resolution used in phreatic ecology studies is generally coarse. These problems impede progress in community ecology, biogeography and conservation biology. DNA barcoding and other molecular taxonomy methods are now being applied to groundwater fauna. Combining molecular taxonomy and traditional morphological methods could increase the accuracy and efficiency of species identification and help to define taxonomic boundaries.7. Field experiments and mensurative studies are rarely used in phreatic ecology, but they are needed to detect spatial and temporal patterns, quantify ecological relationships and test hypotheses and classification systems. Techniques from groundwater remediation and recharge studies can be adapted to ecological field experiments that utilise natural aquifer structures and groundwater flow dynamics.