Physical Landscape Features Research Articles

Enhancing climate adaptation: Integrating place-based risk perceptions and coastalscape values using Q+PPGIS

Effective climate change adaptation planning requires evaluating the interplay of physical landscape characteristics and community perceptions of places. Geographic information system (GIS)-based approaches to measuring environmental values can identify locations for planning prioritization. But they seldom are used to consider spatial differences in socio-ecological worldview. This study aims to identify how place-based risk perceptions and landscape values can inform climate change adaptation using a Q+PPGIS method. We integrated mapped landscape values and climate risks (from 39 PPGIS participants) with elicited discourses (for 28 Q-method participants) to develop a novel land classification approach (reflexive Q+PPGIS). The results demonstrate significant differences between wilderness as a discourse and perceived, and the physical features associated with mapped wild areas. Similar differences in discourse and spatial patterns are observed for climate risks. For example, participants’ mapped areas of bushfire risk do not align with agencies’ identified risk areas, their jurisdictions, and capacities to take action. This disconnect presents a challenge to adaptation. Local governments can use this new method to show constituents multiple and often competing community demands for action, enabling honest conversations about feasible actions, responsibilities, and resource allocation.

How perceived sensory dimensions of urban green spaces affect cultural ecosystem benefits: A study on Haizhu Wetland Park, China

Research exploring the relationship between human well-being and ecosystem functions by assessing cultural ecosystem benefits (CEBs) is a crucial and emerging field. However, quantifying CEB is challenging due to the lack of a uniform measurement scale. In addition, it is crucial to understand the factors that influence CEBs to enhance ecosystem functions and contribute to human well-being. While physical landscape features have been investigated, there is limited evidence supporting the link between perception-based landscape features and CEBs. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a CEBs measurement scale and investigate the impact of perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) of urban green spaces (UGSs) on CEBs. We conducted a Public Participation GIS-survey (PPGIS) at Guangzhou National Haizhu Wetland Park. 1473 participants took part in our study and evaluated the CEBs provided by urban green spaces (UGSs). Using SPSS statistics and ArcMap tools, we found that PSDs of UGSs are significantly associated with CEB. Additionally, we confirmed that different levels within a PSD influence the levels of CEBs gained from UGSs. Our results indicate that creating serene, open, and natural UGSs is more effective than incorporating numerous cultural elements. In conclusion, this study introduces PSDs into the framework of CEB, which landscape architects can use to shape the specific environmental characteristics of UGSs and provide the CEBs required to support the well-being of urban populations.

Variety among physical landscape features in natural grassland-plantation forestry mosaics promotes diverse butterfly assemblages

Various physical landscape features across local and regional spatial scales contribute to heterogeneity. This means that ostensible maintenance of physical landscape features as representatives of heterogeneity (i.e., a meso-filter conservation approach) can contribute to conservation of insect assemblages. Using butterflies as model organisms, we investigate the conservation value of specific physical landscape feature types (rocky areas, wetlands, and gullies) relative to open grasslands, across 32 study sites in a natural grassland-plantation forestry mosaic in South Africa. We found that all considered landscape feature types had equal species richness and diversity levels compared to open grasslands. Yet, β-diversity (mostly accounted for by species turnover) was overall high between rocky areas, wetlands, and open grasslands, resulting from associations between some butterfly species and certain landscape feature types. Gullies were occupied by nested assemblages of rocky areas and open grasslands, suggesting that gullies have lower conservation importance, and should be targets for restoration. Topography and butterfly food plant availability further influenced β-diversity patterns and should also be considered when adopting a meso-filter conservation approach. β-diversity was also high among similar feature types, suggesting that a variety of landscape features that encapsulates environmental variation at a landscape scale can best conserve regional butterfly assemblages. While our focus was on butterflies, we anticipate these findings to be relevant to other insect groups, given that butterflies have successfully been used as conservation surrogates for other terrestrial insect taxa (e.g., grasshoppers) in the same area.

Features of urban green spaces associated with positive emotions, mindfulness and relaxation

There is an established consensus among researchers that contact with nature improves mental health, wellbeing, and quality of life in urbanised environments. Studies tend to examine the health impacts of nature without identifying specific physical and spatial landscape features that could guide health-promoting design of urban green spaces. A growing body of evidence suggests that landscape features described in the Contemplative Landscape Model (CLM) can be used to measure therapeutic value of urban landscapes. CLM assesses urban landscapes across seven sub-scales: Layers of the Landscape, Landform, Vegetation, Color and Light, Compatibility, Archetypal Elements and Character of Peace and Silence. We exposed 74 healthy adults to six urban landscapes in laboratory (video representations) and naturalistic outdoor settings. We explored the associations between the visual quality of urban landscapes annotated with CLM, with self-reported positive emotions and brain activity consistent with mindfulness (Theta waves), relaxation (Alpha waves) and attention restoration (Beta waves), and differences between laboratory and naturalistic setting. CLM scores predicted self-reported Valence and Arousal, and low frequency power bands: Alpha and Theta in the naturalistic setting. Landscape features showing the strongest associations were Character of Peace and Silence, Layers of the Landscape and Archetypal Elements. Alpha, Theta brain reactivity and Arousal scores, were significantly different between laboratory and naturalistic settings (p < 0.05), while Valence scores between those settings were statistically identical (p = 0.22). Self-reported Valence and Arousal, but not brain activity, were significantly associated with the majority of landscape features in the laboratory setting. The results of the study provide guidelines on the urban landscape features most beneficial for human health, to inform urban green space design.

Modeling heat island exposure and vulnerability utilizing earth observations and social drivers: A case study for Alabama, USA

Alabama currently experiences an above-average threat from extreme heat events compared to the remaining states in the USA. More than 160,000 people living in the state (infants, elderly age groups, or poverty-ridden populations) remain vulnerable to heat events. The risk of heat-related mortalities and morbidities disproportionately impacts the growing Alabama cities due to increasing hot-weather episodes and several underlying social vulnerability factors. The exposure threat in 2050 is projected to increase by more than 90 average heat days a year and the number of heat-wave days is predicted to increase from 15 to more than 70 days a year. Although the state's hazard mitigation plan covers extreme heat issues and heat emergency plans, Alabama lacks heat adaptation plans and is conducting heat vulnerability assessments from time to time. This study focused on determining the social drivers of heat vulnerability and identifying regions within the state that experienced intense heat island effects over the course of five years (2015–2019). 15 sociodemographic factors data from the 2018 American Community Survey (ACS), and 6 health outcome variables (asthma, obesity, stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes) were analyzed to assess cumulative social vulnerability using principal component analysis (PCA). Using Spatial Autoregression (SAR) model, exposure risk was measured as a function of environmental parameters including proportional vegetation, normalized difference water index (NDWI), digital elevation model (DEM), and percent imperviousness of land surface. A heat risk index calculated as a product of social vulnerability and exposure risk was analyzed for Alabama's eight largest and growing cities (Birmingham, Huntsville, Hoover, Montgomery, Mobile, Tuscaloosa, Auburn, and Dothan) at the block-group census resolution. Spatial data depicting the physical landscape characteristics across the cities revealed differing levels of and factors in exposure to urban heat effects across the city.

The influence of season and landscape on the water quality of ponds at multiple spatial scales

ABSTRACT Understanding the spatial relationships between land use/land cover (LULC) and physicochemical water quality in pond ecosystems is vital to the conservation and management of ponds. This knowledge is especially critical to reconcile landscape planning and management, particularly in urban regions with rapid population growth. In this study we measured (1) seasonal differences in water quality and (2) the impact of the surrounding landscape at 4 spatial scales (10 m, 100 m, 500 m, and full catchment) on water quality of 50 ponds in the Auckland region, New Zealand. For each pond, 9 physicochemical water quality variables and 9 landscape properties (LULC and physical features of the ponds) were measured in winter and summer. We found significantly higher measures of conductivity, total dissolved solids, percentage of dissolved oxygen at saturation (%DO), pH, salinity, and phosphate concentrations in summer. By contrast, ammoniacal nitrogen concentration was higher in winter. These findings indicated impaired water quality during summer. Multiple linear regression and redundancy analyses showed that LULC and physical landscape features had different influences on the physicochemical variables across the different spatial scales and seasons. The landscape properties at all 4 spatial scales were good indicators of pond temperature and %DO only in summer. Overall, variations in pond water quality were explained better by general landscape characteristics than by LULC alone at the catchment and 500 m scale in winter and at the 100 m scale in summer. This study highlights the importance of including different spatial scales, seasons, and landscapes when quantifying land–water interactions.

What can we see from the road? Applications of a cumulative viewshed analysis on a US state highway network

Abstract. In many parts of the world, motorized travel is one of the most common ways that people interact with their regional landscape. This study investigates how travelers' understandings of place might be influenced by what landforms they can see from a vehicle. It uses a cumulative viewshed analysis on the Washington State (United States) highway network to determine which physical landscape features are most frequently visible or obscured from the road. Adapting ideas from Kevin Lynch's The Image of the City, I propose spatial data processing methods to derive landmarks, edges, and districts that could most contribute to the mental maps of travelers and should be prioritized for labeling on print, electronic, and augmented reality maps. Other applications of the cumulative viewshed include deriving scenic byways, siting proposed construction for high or low visibility, and guiding conversations about critical toponymy and perceptions of place.

Quantifying Interactive Cooling Effects of Morphological Parameters and Vegetation-Related Landscape Features during an Extreme Heat Event

In this study, we apply the ENVI-met model to evaluate the effects of combinations of morphological and vegetation-related landscape features on urban temperatures and thermal comfort. We simulated the thermal conditions of 126 scenarios, varying the aspect ratios of street canyons, vegetation cover and density, surface materials, and orientations toward the prevalent winds under an extreme heat situation. Our results show how the effects of physical and vegetation parameters interact and moderate each other. We also demonstrate how sensitive thermal comfort indices such as temperature and relative humidity are to the built environment parameters during different hours of a day. This study’s findings highlight the necessity of prioritizing heat mitigation interventions based on the site’s physical characteristics and landscape features and avoiding generic strategies for all types of urban environments.

Assessing Relations between Cultural Ecosystem Services, Physical Landscape Features and Accessibility in Central-Eastern Europe: A PPGIS Empirical Study from Hungary

Despite the growing quantity of ecosystem-services-related research, there is still a lack of deeper understanding on cultural ecosystem services (CES). This is mainly due to the perception of CES, which can vary by geographic location and population. In this study, we present a Public Participation Geographic Information System (PPGIS) method in a Hungarian microregion. Our goal is to increase understanding on how cultural services are perceived in this geographical context and level, and how this relative importance is related to biophysical landscape features. We also consider the influence of accessibility on the perceived landscape and compare our findings with the results of other studies with different sociocultural backgrounds. The research consists of participatory mapping with 184 persons that were digitized and analyzed with GIS and statistical software. During the analysis, we identified CES hotspots and compared CES with landscape features, as well as CES perception with accessibility. Our results showed positive correlation of CES with land covers related to built-up areas, as well as aesthetic and recreational services with water bodies. Compared to other studies, we found different spatial relationships in the case of spiritual services, and higher importance of agricultural land covers during the CES perception, thanks to the Central-Eastern European (CEE) sociocultural background. Our study highlights the effect of accessibility on CES perception; nevertheless, these relationships varied by different infrastructural elements. We conclude by discussing the implications and limitations of our study and encouraging future landscape research to apply the PPGIS method in this geographical context.

The Challenges of Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Pastoral Rangelands

Recognizing that community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) approaches have had mixed success in pastoral rangelands, this paper compares five case studies—two from Kenya, two from Ethiopia and one from Tunisia—to identify aspects of social-ecological context that affect the implementation and success of CBNRM in pastoral settings. Data for each case was collected following a common protocol. Among the characteristics that emerged from our study as important were socio-political and biophysical characteristics of the wider landscape within which the community’s rangeland territory is located and the extent to which that territory is circumscribed by some combination of other land uses and land tenure types, major political boundaries, and physical landscape features. The analysis of these cases suggests that where pastoralist communities coexist in large, open rangeland landscapes, rather than a narrowly community-based approach, natural resource management interventions need to be explicitly multi-level and horizontally flexible.

Acceptability factors for wildlife approach in park and protected area settings

Human-wildlife conflicts are a challenge in parks and protected areas around the world. Facilitating quality wildlife viewing experiences that minimize negative impacts to people and animals is often complicated by distance-related human behaviors. The purpose of this study was to examine how people's distance-related norms varied as a function of proximity from wildlife, wildlife species, and physical landscape features. By using virtual reality technology and simulations, this study assessed how physical landscape features (i.e., an open field, deadfall, and a paved road) impact wildlife viewing norms and also compared norms among three different wildlife species (i.e., bison, bear, and elk). Data were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVA to explore how these factors influenced acceptability ratings of distances between people and wildlife. Results revealed a significant interaction between distance to wildlife and landscape features. Recommendations for improving the management of humanwildlife conflicts and future research directions are discussed.

Noise and landscape features influence habitat use of mammalian herbivores in a natural gas field.

Anthropogenic noise is a complex disturbance known to elicit a variety of responses in wild animals. Most studies examining the effects of noise on wildlife focus on vocal species, although theory suggests that the acoustic environment influences non-vocal species as well. Common mammalian prey species, like mule deer and hares and rabbits (members of the family Leporidae), rely on acoustic cues for information regarding predation, but the impacts of noise on their behaviour has received little attention. We paired acoustic recorders with camera traps to explore how average daily levels of anthropogenic noise from natural gas activity impacted occupancy and detection of mammalian herbivores in an energy field in the production phase of development. We consider the effects of noise in the context of several physical landscape variables associated with natural gas infrastructure that are known to influence habitat use patterns in mule deer. Our results suggest that mule deer detection probability was influenced by the interaction between physical landscape features and anthropogenic noise, with noise strongly reducing habitat use. In contrast, leporid habitat use was not related to noise but was influenced by landscape features. Notably, mule deer showed a stronger predicted negative response to roads with high noise exposure. This study highlights the complex interactions of anthropogenic disturbance and wildlife distribution and presents important evidence that the effects of anthropogenic noise should be considered in research focused on non-vocal specialist species and management plans for mule deer and other large ungulates.

ОЦІНКА ПАРАМЕТРІВ ШОРСТКОСТІ ЗЕМНОЇ ПОВЕРХНІ ЗА ДВОХПОЛЯРИЗАЦІЙНИМ РАДІОЛОКАЦІЙНИМ ВІДБИТТЯМ МЕТОДОМ ЗВОРОТНОГО МОДЕЛЮВАННЯ

Радіолокаційне дистанційне зондування є сучасним та ефективним методом аерокосмічних досліджень Землі. Масове впровадження нових радіолокаційних систем високої розрізненності на основі радіолокаторів з синтезованою апертурою (РСА) значно розширило можливості радарного знімання. Доцільність застосування даного методу було підтверджено в сферах, що традиційно використовують дані дистанційного зондування – картографії, сільському і лісовому господарстві, пошуку корисних копалини, охорони навколишнього середовища, моніторингу надзвичайних ситуацій, обороні. Основним фізичним параметром земної поверхні, який реєструється неінтерферометричними РСА, є коефіцієнт зворотного розсіяння (сигма-нуль). Прийнятий радарний сигнал є джерелом для складного моделювання процесів зворотного розсіяння та оцінки вторинних фізичних і біофізичних характеристик земної поверхні -- текстури, зволоженості, діелектричної проникності, структури рослинного покриву тощо. При цьому шорсткість земної поверхні, яка описується середньоквадратичним відхиленням її вертикальних нерегулярностей, виступає одним з найбільш значущих чинників будь-якого моделювання. Отже, задача відновлення шорсткості земної поверхні за даними радіолокаційного дистанційного зондування є досить актуальною. Шорсткість земної поверхні – це незалежна фізична величина, що багато в чому визначає радіолокаційне зворотне розсіяння. Проте радіус кореляції шорсткості залежить від поляризації радіолокаційного сигналу. У статті описується кількісний підхід до відновлення шорсткості земної поверхні за двохполяризаційними зображеннями РСА на основі узгодження вимірів незалежної фізичної величини – діелектричної проникності в різних поляризаціях. Використовується запропонована Багдаді та ін. напівемпіричне калібрування IEM радіолокаційного зворотного розсіяння з урахуванням поляризаційно-залежної величини радіуса кореляції для забезпечення фізичної еквівалентності вимірів діелектричної проникності земної поверхні в різних поляризаціях. Крім того, приведені необхідні розрахункові співвідношення та приклад обробки реального радіолокаційного зображення Sentinel-1. Одержані результати в цілому відповідають відомим фізичним закономірностям і ландшафтним особливостям території дослідження.

Data-informed sampling and mapping: an approach to ensure plot-based classifications locate, classify and map rare and restricted vegetation types

A new approach to vegetation sample selection, classification and mapping is described that accounts for rare and restricted vegetation communities. The new method (data-informed sampling and mapping: D-iSM) builds on traditional preferential sampling and was developed to guide conservation and land-use planning. It combines saturation coverage of vegetation point data with a preferential sampling design to produce locally accurate vegetation classifications and maps. Many existing techniques rely entirely or in part on random sampling, modelling against environmental variables, or on assumptions that photo-patterns detected through aerial photographic interpretation or physical landscape features can be attributed to a specific vegetation type. D-iSM uses ground data to inform both classification and mapping phases of a project. The approach is particularly suited to local- and regional-scale situations where disputes between conservation and development often lead to poor planning decisions, as well as in circumstances where highly restricted vegetation types occur within a wider mosaic of more common communities. Benefits of the D-iSM approach include more efficient and more representative floristic sampling, more realistic and repeatable classifications, increased user accuracy in vegetation mapping and increased ability to detect and map rare vegetation communities. Case studies are presented to illustrate the method in real-world classification and mapping projects.

Field-based estimation and modelling of distributed groundwater recharge in a Mediterranean karst catchment, Wadi Natuf, West Bank

Abstract. While groundwater recharge is one of the most prominently covered subjects in hydrogeology, the spatial distribution of recharge has been given relatively little attention, especially in semi-arid, karstic aquifers. Under conditions of highly diverse geology, relief, vegetation and land use, the complexity and variability of spatially distributed hydrological processes remains a challenge in many regions around the world. This is particularly true for hitherto ungauged basins, such as Wadi Natuf, a 103 km2 large karstic Eastern Mediterranean watershed in the Palestinian upstream mountain and recharge area of the Western Aquifer Basin (WAB), which is shared with Israel in the coastal plain. In this first in a series of two papers, distributed recharge is estimated and represented, based on 7 years of extensive field observations and measurements and based conceptually on observable physical landscape features such as geology, land use and land cover (LU/LC) and especially soil conditions. For the first time in the WAB, a forward calculated soil moisture and percolation model (SMSP) was set up with parameters directly gained from field observations. The model was parameterised in a strictly parsimonious manner, as a one-dimensional model (a.k.a. “tank”, bucket or box model). This is based on dominant hydrological processes, in particular saturation excess in the soil column, and identifying patterns of linkage between different landscape features. Average soil thickness was encountered at the range of decimetres, rarely above one metre. Both soil thickness and LU/LC features, such as terraced olive groves or forests as well as grassland or barren rock outcrops, were found to be highly formation specific. This linkage allowed us to further simplify the model and its requirements in a realistic manner for eight soil moisture stations, chosen at six different geological formations with typical soil and LU/LC representations. The main result of the model was the determination of formation-specific recharge coefficients, spatially ranging between 0 % and almost 60 % of annual rainfall or up to 300 mm a−1 in Wadi Natuf's climate. The karstified main aquifers showed recharge coefficients (RC) above 40 % and even the less prominent slightly aquitardal local aquifers reached RC values above 30 %. The model was separately tested on two conceptual levels: on the level of basin form (soil moisture) and basin response (signatures of peak recharge and local spring discharge events) under well-controlled conditions in isolated sub-catchments. In principle, our approach is applicable in many of the scarcely gauged karstic groundwater basins around the world with a highly diverse landscape and geology.

Exploring cultural ecosystem service hotspots: Linking multiple urban forest features with public participation mapping data

The contribution of single landscape features for supply of cultural ecosystem services (CES) is well researched. However, only few studies do exist that identified the role of both natural and humanmade physical landscape features for CES of urban forests. Advancing knowledge on the contribution of urban forest elements and their ensemble for values people assign to forest areas can help forest managers prioritize and balance management objectives. Furthermore, enhancing understanding on urban forest visitors’ preference and spatial behavior has the potential to improve existing forest management tools, such as forest function maps that are used to address interests of the public. We examined the linkages between CES hotspots (demand) and physical landscape features (supply) to help urban forest managers identify natural resource management synergies and conflicts, and to focus management efforts on features that matter. We elicited spatial CES of urban forests (dependent variable) by collecting Public Participation GIS- data (PPGIS) from city dwellers in three case studies in Germany’s Southwest (10800 markers being placed, 3354 participants). We derived biophysical characteristics, landform and land cover (explanatory variable) from OpenStreetMap, inventory maps, high resolution LiDAR satellite imagery, and forest function maps of the federal states’ forestry administration. We used Breiman and Cutler’s random forest for regression to assess the contribution of urban forest characteristics for supply of CES. We found humanmade infrastructure like historic sites and sports infrastructure as well as bluespace being most important for the supply of CES, whereas natural features and biophysical characteristics (habitat) were less important. Natural features were most important for cultural heritage-, inspirational- and spiritual values. We conclude that forest managers may promote CES in urban forests best when simultaneously enhancing infrastructure besides considering aesthetic preferences in silviculture.

Anthropogenic noise does not surpass land cover in explaining habitat selection of Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido)

AbstractOver the last century, increasing human populations and conversion of grassland to agriculture have had severe consequences for numbers of Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido). Understanding Greater Prairie-Chicken response to human disturbance, including the effects of anthropogenic noise and landscape modification, is vital for conserving remaining populations because these disturbances are becoming more common in grassland systems. Here, we evaluate the effect of low-frequency noise emitted from a wind energy facility on habitat selection. We used the Normalized Difference Soundscape Index, a ratio of human-generated and biological acoustic components, to determine the impact of the dominant acoustic characteristics of habitat relative to physical landscape features known to influence within–home range habitat selection. Female Greater Prairie-Chickens avoided wooded areas and row crops but showed no selection or avoidance of wind turbines based on the availability of these features across their home range. Although the acoustic environment near the wind energy facility was dominated by anthropogenic noise, our results show that acoustic habitat selection is not evident for this species. In contrast, our work highlights the need to reduce the presence of trees, which have been historically absent from the region, as well as decrease the conversion of grassland to row-crop agriculture. Our findings suggest physical landscape changes surpass altered acoustic environments in mediating Greater Prairie-Chicken habitat selection.

Linking residential saltwater intrusion risk perceptions to physical exposure of climate change impacts in rural coastal communities of North Carolina

The salinization of freshwater-dependent coastal ecosystems precedes inundation by sea level rise. This type of saltwater intrusion places communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure at substantial risk. Risk perceptions of local residents are an indicator to gauge public support for climate change adaptation planning. Here, we document residential perspectives on the present and future threats posed by saltwater intrusion in a rural, low-lying region in coastal North Carolina, and we compare the spatial distribution of survey responses to physical landscape variables such as distance to coastline, artificial drainage density, elevation, saltwater intrusion vulnerability, and actual salinity measured during a synoptic field survey. We evaluate and discuss the degree of alignment or misalignment between risk perceptions and metrics of exposure to saltwater intrusion. Risk perceptions align well with the physical landscape characteristics, as residents with greater exposure to saltwater intrusion, including those living on low-lying land with high concentrations of artificial drainages, perceive greater risk than people living in low-exposure areas. Uncertainty about threats of saltwater intrusion is greatest among those living at higher elevations, whose properties and communities are less likely to be exposed to high salinity. As rising sea levels, drought, and coastal storms increase the likelihood of saltwater intrusion in coastal regions, integrated assessments of risk perceptions and physical exposure are critical for developing outreach activities and planning adaptation measures.

Spatial Pattern of Rice Field Productivity based on Physical Characteristics of Landscape in Citarum Watershed, West Java

This research to analyse the pattern of rice field productivity that is identified through landscape perspective. Identification of productivity pattern has been done partially based on each typology of land components into several segment of the Citarum watershed, West Java Province, Indonesia. Spatial autocorrelation through GIS tool is used as the method in this research. By using moran’s I (index) measurement, degree of dependency of these variables are generated to find the spatial pattern. The result of this study is separated the value of productivity based on segments of watershed, the values of the average of productivity are upstream (6,39 ton/Ha), middle stream (6,52 ton/Ha), and downstream (7,17 ton/Ha), sequentially. The highest productivity is in the downstream area (9,83 ton/Ha) and the lowest is in the upstream area (4,55 ton/Ha). In accordance with physiographic typology showed the rice field in the middle stream has more variation than the upstream or teh downstream area. The highest of average rice field productivity is on alluvial plain. Overall, the rice field productivity on the hills is higher rather that other types of landform the stuctural formation is more dominant, in addition. The spatial pattern shows the distribution of rice field productivity most likely to clustered based on the similarity of physiographic type. Statistically, it has p-value &lt;0,01 and z-score &gt;2,58 (239,26) correspond to Spatial Autocorrelation (Moron’s I). This positive value means a less than 1% likelihood that this clustered pattern could be result of random choice, which the rice field productivity value has similar pattern to others. Thus, it can be generated that the pattern of rice field productivity has a very close relation with the physical characteristics which associated of each typology of land components.

Landscape limits gene flow and drives population structure in Agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)

Distance, environmental heterogeneity and local adaptation can strongly influence population structure and connectivity. Understanding how these factors shape the genomic landscape of threatened species is a major goal in conservation genomics and wildlife management. Herein, we use thousands (6,859) of single nucleotide polymorphism markers and spatial data from hundreds of individuals (n = 646) to re-evaluate the population structure of Agassiz’s desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). Analyses resolve from 4 to 8 spatially well-defined clusters across the range. Western, central, and southern populations within the Western Mojave recovery unit are consistent throughout, while analyses sometimes merge other recovery units depending on the level of clustering. Causal modeling consistently associates genetic connectivity with least-cost distance, based on multiple landscape features associated with tortoise habitat, better than geographic distance. Some features include elevation, soil depth, rock volume, precipitation, and vegetation coverage, suggesting that physical, climatic, and biotic landscape features have played a strong evolutionary role restricting gene flow between populations. Further, 12 highly differentiated outlier loci have associated functions that may be involved with neurogenesis, wound healing, lipid metabolism, and possibly vitellogenesis. Together, these findings have important implications for recovery programs, such as translocations, population augmentation, reproduction in captivity and the identification of ecologically important genes, opening new venues for conservation genomics in desert tortoises.