Physical Defenses Research Articles

The effects of chilling and forcing temperatures on spring synchrony between larch casebearer and tamarack

Abstract Spring phenological synchrony can be important for tree‐insect interactions. Depending on the magnitude and direction of phenological shifts, overwintering insects could be affected in many ways, for example, facing starvation or having to contend with increased chemical or physical defences of host trees. If temperature has different influences on the phenology of trees and insects, climate change can alter spring phenological synchrony. In this experiment, we exposed tamarack seedlings and larch case bearer larvae from Minnesota, USA, to a variety of chilling and forcing temperatures and measured spring phenology (twig bud break and larval activation). We additionally measured case bearer performance on seedlings that were exposed to different forcing × chilling levels, tracking larval survivorship to adulthood. Warmer forcing enhanced larval activation and bud break, but larval development slowed down past 21°C. Higher chilling temperatures accelerated bud break, but the effect was inconclusive for larvae. There was no chilling × forcing interaction for either species. Spring activity accelerated more quickly with increases in temperature for larvae than for seedlings, resulting in increased phenological synchrony at warmer temperatures. Activation rates for overwintering larvae were highest at 27°C, while survivorship to adulthood following spring activation was highest at 21°C. At temperatures at or beyond 27°C, no larvae reached adulthood. Warmer winters and springs will likely initially increase spring synchrony between tamarack and larch case bearer, exposing larvae to younger, potentially more nutritious foliage, but extremely warm spring temperatures may decrease survivorship of larvae to adulthood.

Integrating defense and leaf economic spectrum traits in a tropical savanna plant.

Allocation to plant defense traits likely depends on resource supply, herbivory, and other plant functional traits such as the leaf economic spectrum (LES) traits. Yet, attempts to integrate defense and resource acquisitive traits remain elusive. We assessed intraspecific covariation between different defense and LES traits in a widely distributed tropical savanna herb, Solanum incanum, a unique model species for studying allocations to physical, chemical, and structural defenses to mammalian herbivory. We found that in a multivariate trait space, the structural defenses - lignin and cellulose - were positively related to the resource conservative traits - low SLA and low leaf N. Phenolic content, a chemical defense, was positively associated with resource acquisitive traits - high SLA and high leaf N - while also being associated with an independent third component axis. Both principal components 1 and 3 were not associated with resource supply and herbivory intensity. In contrast, spine density - a physical defense - was orthogonal to the LES axis and positively associated with soil P and herbivory intensity. These results suggest a hypothesized "pyramid" of trade-offs in allocation to defense along the LES and herbivory intensity axes. Therefore, future attempts to integrate defense traits with the broader plant functional trait framework, such as the LES, needs a multifaceted approach that accounts for unique influences of resource acquisitive traits and herbivory risk.

Why are phytoseiid predatory mites not effectively controlling Echinothrips americanus?

The poinsettia thrips, Echinothrips americanus Morgan (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is a key pest of various ornamental and vegetable greenhouse crops. As current biological control alternatives lack efficiency, applying chemicals remains the dominant control strategy, thereby heavily disturbing the biocontrol-based integrated management of other pests. For a range of other thrips pests, phytoseiid predatory mites have shown to be effective biocontrol agents, being able to overcome the thrips' physical and chemical defense armory. Here, we investigated potential underlying causes for the lack of phytoseiid efficacy in controlling E. americanus. First, we assessed the nutritional value of E. americanus for the predatory mite Amblydromalus limonicus (Garman and McGregor) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) when its physical or chemical defenses were eliminated by freezing the thrips. The phytoseiid could complete its immature development when frozen thrips instars were offered, but not when these were offered alive. Subsequently, we tested whether adult female A. limonicus had a higher predation rate on first instar E. americanus when they had been given experience with either live or frozen E. americanus during their immature development (i.e., conditioning). Conditioning significantly increased the predation capacity of the phytoseiid. Finally, we tested the control potential of conditioned A. limonicus versus naïve ones when exposed to E. americanus on sweet pepper plants. In contrast to the laboratory trials, at the plant level, conditioning did not yield better control. Possible factors explaining insufficient control of E. americanus by phytoseiids are discussed.

Polybrominated diphenyl ether-47 and food shortage impair the byssal attachment and health of marine mussels

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are one of the most used halogenated flame retardants worldwide, and exert neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, endocrine interference, and carcinogenic effects on organisms. However, there are insufficient studies on the physical and immune defense at the individual level of mussels under different food conditions. To explore the defense strategy and individual health status, the thick-shelled mussels Mytilus coruscus were exposed to different BDE-47 concentrations (0, 0.1 and 10 μg/L) and nutritional conditions (feeding and starvation) for 21 days. The results showed that BDE-47 exposure and starvation significantly decreased the number of byssus threads (NBT), adhesion, and condition index (CI) of mussels, whereas increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and the combined stress further declined the CI. BDE-47 exposure and starvation induced decreased adhesive capability and healthy state along with oxidative lesions in mussels. The downregulation gene expression of foot adhesion proteins (mfp-2/3/4/5/6) under starvation or combined exposure also proved the reduced adhesion of mussels. However, up-regulated mfp-1 and pre-collagens proteins (preCOL-D/P/NG) indicated mussels would adjust energy allocation to enhance the strength and extensibility of byssal threads for compensating reduced adhesion and CI. As global climate change and organic pollution have dramatically impacted the ocean, hazardous substances and the fluctuated primary productivity have frequently co-occurred, which will affect the structure of coastal biomes and fishery production.

Nanotechnology Meets the Clinic: Using Chitosan/Silver Nanocomposites to Target Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections During Burn Wound Therapy

Burn wounds represent a severe breach in the skin as a physical defense mechanism that leaves the mammalian host highly susceptible to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. The intrinsic resistance of P. aeruginosa to common antibiotics presents a problem in burn units worldwide. Despite recent developments in alternative treatments, such as bacteriophage therapy and vaccines, the lethal potential of P. aeruginosa remains ineffectively addressed. However, recent treatment strategies using chitosan/silver nanocomposites (CS/Ag-NCs) with distinct synergistic bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities represent a versatile multifunctional approach to combating P. aeruginosa wound colonization. CS/Ag-NCs possess innate wound healing and tissue regeneration properties, which stem from their hemostatic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cell proliferation-promoting activities. In addition, CS/Ag-NCs have excellent potential for enhancing burn wound dressings, such as membranes, sponges, nanofibers, and hydrogels impregnated with CS/Ag-NCs, conferring a multitude of advantages over traditional clinical dressings. By addressing the global burden of P. aeruginosa infections in civilian and military settings, it is possible to combat the alarming increase in antimicrobial resistance more effectively.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of Dendrocalamus farinosus CCoAOMT Gene Family and the Role of DfCCoAOMT14 Involved in Lignin Synthesis.

As the main component of plant cell walls, lignin can not only provide mechanical strength and physical defense for plants, but can also be an important indicator affecting the properties and quality of wood and bamboo. Dendrocalamus farinosus is an important economic bamboo species for both shoots and timber in southwest China, with the advantages of fast growth, high yield and slender fiber. Caffeoyl-coenzyme A-O-methyltransferase (CCoAOMT) is a key rate-limiting enzyme in the lignin biosynthesis pathway, but little is known about it in D. farinosus. Here, a total of 17 DfCCoAOMT genes were identified based on the D. farinosus whole genome. DfCCoAOMT1/14/15/16 were homologs of AtCCoAOMT1. DfCCoAOMT6/9/14/15/16 were highly expressed in stems of D. farinosus; this is consistent with the trend of lignin accumulation during bamboo shoot elongation, especially DfCCoAOMT14. The analysis of promoter cis-acting elements suggested that DfCCoAOMTs might be important for photosynthesis, ABA/MeJA responses, drought stress and lignin synthesis. We then confirmed that the expression levels of DfCCoAOMT2/5/6/8/9/14/15 were regulated by ABA/MeJA signaling. In addition, overexpression of DfCCoAOMT14 in transgenic plants significantly increased the lignin content, xylem thickness and drought resistance of plants. Our findings revealed that DfCCoAOMT14 can be a candidate gene that is involved in the drought response and lignin synthesis pathway in plants, which could contribute to the genetic improvement of many important traits in D. farinosus and other species.

Infanticide by male gelada leader and group counterstrategies

AbstractInfanticide by males following the takeover and the acquisition of females with unweaned offspring has been observed in primate species. Like many other primate species, geladas (Theropithecus gelada) commit infanticide by nonsire males to enhance their reproductive success. Direct observation of infanticide is a rare phenomenon in geladas. During my stay in the field, I observed clear evidence of infanticide by nonsire male gelada. Adult females and juveniles of the group tried to stop the killing through scrambling, shouting, loudness, caustic and aggression. However, they could not save the infant's life. After they confirmed the death of the infant the group left the area. This direct observation confirms to provide reliable information on the occurrences of infanticide by male geladas in the wild. Such infanticide by nonsire male geladas most probably occurs to hasten mating receptivity in the females. Mass physical group defence strategy is counter adaptations to reduce the likelihood of infanticide by nonsire male geladas.

Post-disaster rapid assessment of Sunda Strait tsunami on 24th–25th December 2018 in the Regencies of Serang and Pandeglang, Province of Banten, Indonesia

Post-disaster rapid assessment of the Sunda Strait Tsunami was conducted on 24th–25th December 2018 in five selected sample sites. These study sites were located on the western coast of the Regencies of Serang and Pandeglang, and represented a range of damages, losses, and needs. The aims of this assessment are: (1) measuring the tsunami wave dimensions, (2) observing the landscape conditions, and (3) investigating the affected land cover. The physical damages were investigated based on the tsunami wave dimension analysis, by using a direct-field measurement, drone-based survey, and local interviews. The results show that (1) the greatest trace of tsunami dimensions in Tanjung Jaya Village, Panimbang District, Pandeglang Regency was subjected to the highest fatality, (2) the open landscape aggravated the tsunami impact, compared to the landscape with perennial trees or hilly topography, and (3) the severely destructed buildings were usually on the nearest coastline, where Sambolo residential area in Sukarame Village had the worst impact. These conditions were exacerbated by: (1) the absence of coastal retaining structures as physical defense, and (2) built-on facilities on reclaimed land that violated government regulation. Additionally, this paper proposes several recommendations to support the next phase of mitigation strategies and sustainable planning.

Stopover territoriality in songbirds crossing the Sahara: aggression and energetics during migration

Stopover territoriality, i.e., the defense and broadcast of an ephemeral home range during avian migration, is rare or perhaps overlooked. However, settling on a territory may allow for easier access to resources and therefore promote faster refueling despite the added costs of territory defense. We examined the occurrence of stopover territoriality and its relationship to body condition and refueling rates. We color-ringed Western Subalpine Warblers (Curruca iberiae) mapped their home ranges and measured associated habitat characteristics during a spring stopover in the Sahara. We simulated territory intrusions via song playback to quantify territorial behavior. Males aggressively defended and broadcasted their stopover territories in response to intruders. Initial body condition in males was negatively related to home range vegetation density, suggesting that males in higher condition are selective for certain territory features. Low vegetation density does not support habitat selection for foraging, but perhaps does support social monitoring or predator vigilance as its functions. Fuel deposition rates in recaptured males were unrelated to home range habitat characteristics. Female Subalpine Warblers did not use repeated home ranges yet had similar refueling rates, body conditions, and stopover durations as territorial males. Therefore, while stopover territories were selected based on body condition, territory characteristics did not influence refueling rates. Subalpine Warblers expressed reduced migratory characteristics, making prolonged stopovers of up to 27 days with low refueling rates but maintaining body condition while defending territories. These results suggest that some individuals are staging for non-energetic reasons, such as pre-breeding preparations, or transitioning between a migratory and a breeding life history stage.Significance statementTerritoriality in birds is commonly associated with breeding activities, less so with the wintering period and rarely with migratory periods. However, territoriality during migration may be energetically beneficial. During a trans-Saharan stopover, male warblers establish and defend temporary territories by singing and engaging in physical defense of home ranges, and those in better condition occupied territories with sparser vegetation. Females were not territorial but refueled at similar rates as males. Stopover territoriality did not increase access to food-rich patches, but perhaps aided in efficient social monitoring and preparations for the approaching breeding season. This is the first detailed documentation of birds defending ephemeral territories during migration, and its potential functions, costs and benefits may inform studies of full-annual cycles and life histories of many migratory species.

The fruit morphometric variation and fruit type evolution of the stone oaks (Fagaceae, Lithocarpus)

BackgroundThe great species diversity of Lithocarpus is associated with interspecific fruit morphological variation, represented by acorn (AC) and enclosed receptacle (ER) fruit types. Species representing both fruit types co-occur in the same forests and share two distribution centers in southern China and southeastern Asia. The predation selection hypothesis suggests that the fruit morphological mechanical trade-off between two fruit types could represent divergent dispersal strategies under varied predation pressures. By integrating phylogenetic construction with fruit morphometric study, we tried to verify the predation selection hypothesis and elucidate the fruit type evolution of Lithocarpus, which is critical in interpreting the distribution and diversification of the genus.ResultsWe identified the functional trade-off between the two fruit types: ER species have bigger seeds which are enclosed mainly by receptacle representing stronger physical defense; whereas the seeds of AC species are smaller and enclosed mainly by thin pericarp representing lower mechanical protection. Despite some reversals from ER back to AC, the ancestral state reconstruction in combination with thermal analysis supports the hypothesis that ER is the derived fruit type from AC-like ancestors independently across all clades.ConclusionOur results support the predation selection hypothesis by verifying the mechanical trade-off between the two fruit types. We propose a divergent selection theory for the two fruit types: the seed size and mechanical defense of AC species become smaller, whereas those of ER species become larger and require more morphological modifications in the receptacle. This signified the importance of the receptacle in differentiating the two fruit types and in the fruit morphological modification through evolutionary time. We found that the ER-type species evolved independently in all clades and across varied climates from tropical to warm temperate regions. As ER fruits are products of convergent evolution, we propose to examine the predation and dispersal variation between two fruit types in the future to verify whether predation selection is the reason behind fruit type evolution of the stone oaks.

Molecular evidence for stress, inflammation and structural changes in non-specific ulcers in skin of farmed Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

Fish skin is critical to physical defence against pathogens and there is a need to understand the physiological processes impacting ulcers and their healing. Ulcers have been reported in farmed Chinook salmon in New Zealand. This study investigated stress, immune and structural gene expression in farmed Chinook salmon skin with and without ulcers from two sites in New Zealand sampled from February (higher temperature, late summer) to May (lower temperature, late autumn). Skin samples taken adjacent to non-specific ulcers in May and control fish in February demonstrated upregulation of heat shock protein 70 relative to control fish in May. Anterior gradient 2 expression was upregulated in fish with ulcers relative to control fish (both February and May), suggesting increased mucous cell activity. Based on the results of this study, fish with non-specific ulcers showed evidence of stress, inflammation, re-epithelisation, and delayed healing near the ulcer site, elucidating the importance of these processes in the pathogenesis of non-specific ulcers in farmed chinook salmon.

Body setae of a carnivorous caterpillar are an antagonistic trait against a defensive trait of prey: A case study of the aphidophagous larvae of Taraka hamada (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Abstract To feed on prey efficiently, predators must overcome the prey's defensive traits. However, there are fewer reports on the antagonistic traits of predators than there are on the defensive traits of prey. Here, we focus on prey–predator interactions between social aphids and aphidophagous lepidopteran larvae. Larvae of Taraka hamada (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) are specialist predators of the social aphid Ceratovacuna japonica (Homoptera: Aphididae), and later instar larvae have long lateral body setae. Because this aphid produces defensive individuals (soldiers), we hypothesised that T. hamada larvae have an antagonistic trait that prevents attacks by soldiers and tested whether that trait might be their lateral body setae. To test whether a larva's lateral body setae constitute an antagonistic trait against the soldier's physical defence, we compared the rate of aphid consumption per unit time and the vulnerability to attack by soldiers between larvae with short lateral body setae and larvae with long lateral body setae in the presence of soldiers. Our results showed that the aphid consumption rate of larvae with long lateral body setae was significantly higher than that of larvae with short lateral body setae. Furthermore, the larvae with short lateral body setae were more vulnerable to soldier attacks than the larvae with long lateral body setae. These results imply that the length of the lateral body setae of T. hamada larvae affects their vulnerability to soldier attacks and that the lateral body setae are an antagonistic trait against the soldiers of this social aphid.

Seed removal, seed dispersers, and the allocation of tissues in Myrtaceae seeds

AbstractTo avoid seed predation, plants may invest in protective seed tissues. Often related to seed size, allocation in seeds' physical defenses can also be influenced by dispersers. We explore the relationships between seed traits (seed mass and hardness) and seed removal in 22 Myrtaceae species of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a dominant and diverse fleshy‐fruited taxon dispersed by birds, rodents, and other mammals. Our goal is to understand how seed traits influence seed removal rates, and whether dispersers can affect tissue allocation in the seed coat. Seeds were exposed to field removal experiments. In the laboratory, total seed mass and seed coat mass were obtained. To evaluate the influence of seed traits on removal, we performed Kruskal–Wallis and Simple Linear Regression tests. We assessed seed coat and seed mass covariation through standardized major‐axis allometric regressions. Harder seeds were larger than softer ones. Seed traits affect removal rates, as tougher and heavier seeds had lower removal. Seed mass significantly predicts seed coat proportion in seven of the 14 species tested. Bird‐dispersed species tend to exhibit lower proportions of seed coat as seed mass increases, whereas rodent‐dispersed species apparently present the opposite trend, with seed coat proportion increasing with seed mass. Such difference may be caused by the contrasting seed predation pressure represented by birds and rodents. Energy allocation for defense, expressed in seed coat proportion, is greater in large seeds, as these are mostly dispersed by rodents whose propensity to cache and disperse seeds is greater for large and well‐protected seeds.

Edgeworth’s “Great Coat”: A Material-Semiotic Reading of the Irish Mantle and Novelistic Interiority

This article presents a material-semiotic reading of the Irish mantle to develop a new, formal analysis of subjective interiority in Maria Edgeworth’s Irish novels. The mantle’s material functions of concealment and physical defense in medieval Ireland, alongside its imperial and nationalist adaptations in the writings of Edmund Spenser and Joseph Cooper Walker, evince the garment’s complex narrativity. Informed by new materialist theory, this article uses the mantle’s material and semiotic articulations, from its violent history and gendered adaptations in the early nineteenth century, to adapt Deidre Lynch’s model of deep character in the British novel to Irish fiction. Through the allusion to colonial violence, the mantles in Castle Rackrent (1800) and Ennui (1809) structure a deep interiority that is unique to Irish character. The mantle both signals and conceals the depths of Irish subjectivity within the text, confounding reader-character intimacy. Edgeworth’s mantles demand a revised model of deep character for the Irish context.

Newly-sprouted leaves at the stem base differ anatomically and histochemically from the ‎crown leaves in Ficus johannis

ABSTRACT Ficus species evolved physical and chemical defense mechanisms to cope with variable environmental conditions. Field observation of Ficus johannis Boiss. (Mountain Fig) indicated that newly-sprouted leaves developed at the base of the plant are skin irritating, but the crown leaves, out of animal reach, do not. Here, we investigated the anatomical and phytochemical characteristics of both leaves of F. johannis growing in the arid mountains of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The results showed the presence of numerous tapering non-glandular and a few glandular trichomes on the newly-sprouted leaves. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis showed the presence of 107 metabolites; out of them, 16 compounds were identified in the newly-sprouted leaves but not in the crown ones. β-Amyrin, α- amyrin, and β-amyrin acetate, known as irritant chemicals, were~5, 3, and 200 times higher in the newly-sprouted leaves than in the crown leaves, respectively. Our study is the first to report the presence of stinging trichomes in Ficus species, a rare type that has been reported in a few angiosperm families. These results indicated that the variety of trichomes on the newly-sprouted leaves and the leaf’s unique metabolites provide sufficient protection mechanisms against grazing animals.

Views on the social aspects of the emergence of martial arts as the basis of the development of combat sports - the basis of students’ special physical training for self-defense

The subject of this work is specific aspects of the formation of the psychological, intellectual, and physical readiness of a civilian for adversity and adequate actions in risk situations in the context of systematic preparation for self-defense. The purpose of the study was to clarify the views of the authors on the peculiarities of the development of martial arts and the adaptation of their elements into the system of combat sports as part of special physical training for self-defense. The content of the work complements the range of views on the conditions and content of physical training of students in the process of studying the educational discipline "basics of self-defense" and objectively draws attention to the topic of the origin and development of martial arts as the basis for an in-depth study of the forms, methods and means of self-defense and the creation of motivational components for mastering their wide spectrum of possibilities. The article presents the historical stages of the birth of martial arts as a social necessity to maintain military affairs at a high level.
 The work substantiates the relevance of studies of students’ training in the formation of readiness for self-defense in moments of rapid emergence of negative problems associated with an extreme situation, the need for active defense against criminal actions. The views of the authors of scientific and pedagogical literature on the sociological features of the emergence of martial arts, the implementation of their methodical foundations in the context of training for combat sports and, as a result, special physical training for self-defense, are considered. The outline of the essence of the scientific novelty of the research is to direct attention to the study of social and historical prerequisites for the emergence of existing methods of self-defense and the vision of their deterministic options for development in the conditions of martial law. The conclusions emphasize the need to introduce aspects of the study of the causes and consequences of the emergence of certain forms, methods and means of ensuring special personal safety in terms of active physical defense into the educational material "the basis of self-defense".

The Movement Ecology of Mutualism (CSEE/ESA 2022, OOS17)

The Movement Ecology of Mutualism (<scp>CSEE</scp>/<scp>ESA</scp> 2022, <scp>OOS17</scp>)

Perennial shrubs in Egypt: current status and updated red data list

The present study aims at: 1) Preparing a checklist of the perennial shrubs (of height ≥ 50 cm) in the Egyptian flora; 2) Determining the species that are considered alien; 3) Determining the endemic or near-endemic species; 4) Analysing the checklist in terms of taxonomic diversity, geographical distribution, abundance, rarity forms, goods and services, threats, and physical defense; 5) Evaluating the IUCN Red List Categories of species; and 6) Determining the in situ and ex situ conservation actions taken towards these plants in Egypt. In the present study, 171 taxa belonging to 99 genera and 37 families were recorded. They inhabit ten natural and four anthropogenic habitats. SNN (Small geographic range — narrow habitat — non abundant plants) are the most represented rarity form (132 taxa). Sinai is the most diverse region in terms of shrubs (96 taxa). The North African-Indian Desert chorotype has the highest occurrence of shrubs (130 taxa), followed by the Sudanese Park Steppe (75 taxa). Medicinal plants (126 taxa) were the most offered goods, while sand accumulation (79 taxa) was the most represented service. Over-collecting and over-cutting are the most important threats. Four taxa are evaluated as Extinct, another two are Extinct in the Wild, while 70 taxa are threatened with extinction (15 taxa are Critically Endangered, 35 taxa are Endangered, and 20 taxa are Vulnerable). In addition, some 89 species are being conserved (59 taxa are under in situ conservation in the protected areas, 15 taxa are included in botanic gardens, while 85 taxa are kept in the herbaria as dry specimens, and five taxa in gene banks as seed samples).

أثر برنامج تدريبي مقترح للدورة التأسيسية على المهارات التأسيسية وتركيب الجسم لدى منتسبي أندية الكاراتيه في محافظة جنين-فلسطين

The study aimed to identify the effect of a proposed training program for the foundation course of the basic skills and body composition of the members of karate clubs in the governorate of Jenin – Palestine. The researchers used the experimental approach due to its suitability to the nature and objectives of the study. To achieve this, the study was conducted on a carefully chosen sample of karate clubs (the Talented Academy of Physical Fitness and self Defense, Arrabah Karate Club and Zababdeh Karate Club). The sample consisted of 50 members, 10 of those members were of exploratory sample, and the rest 40 members were considered as a basic sample that had been divided randomly into two groups. 20 members of experimental group and 20 members of control group. The researchers used Tanita DC-360 P to measure body components and in addition to a set of tests that measure basic skills. The training program was applied for a period of (10) weeks with (3) training sessions per week. Each training session took (60) minutes. In addition, the statistical packages program was used to analyze the data. The results showed that there were differences among the members of the experimental group between the pre and post measurements of body composition and basic skills. The results also indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the members of the experimental and control groups in the post-measurement of body composition, while the results showed that there were statistically significant differences in the post-measurement of basic skills in karate, which came in favor of the members of the experimental group. The researchers recommended to the need to take account of the training program proposed by the coaches of karate clubs (kata) in the West Bank, especially in the training phase for basic karate skills. هدفت الدراسة التعرف إلى أثر برنامج تدريبي مقترح للدورة التأسيسية على المهارات الأساسية وتركيب الجسم لدى منتسبي أندية الكاراتيه في محافظة جنين- فلسطين، واستخدم الباحثون المنهج التجريبي وذلك لملائمته لطبيعة وأهداف الدراسة، ولتحقيق ذلك أجريت الدراسة على عينة عمدية من أندية (أكاديمية الموهوبين للياقة البدنية والدفاع عن النفس، نادي عرابة للكاراتيه، نادي الزبابده للكاراتيه) حيث بلغت (50) منتسباً منها (10) منتسبين عينة استطلاعية و((40 منتسباً عينة أساسية، قسمت بشكل عشوائي لمجموعتين مجموعة تجريبية مكونة من ((20 منتسباً ومجموعة ضابطة مكونة من ((20 منتسباً، واستخدم الباحثون جهاز التانيتا (Tanita DC-360) لقياس مكونات الجسم ومجموعة من الاختبارات التي تقيس المهارات الأساسية وطبق عليهم البرنامج التدريبي لمدة (10) أسابيع بواقع ثلاث حصص تدريبية أسبوعياً زمن كل حصة تدريبية (60) دقيقة، وتم استخدام برنامج الرزم الإحصائية (SPSS) لتحليل البيانات. أظهرت النتائج وجود فروق لدى أفراد المجموعة التجريبية بين القياسين القبلي والبعدي في مكونات تركيب الجسم والمهارات الأساسية، كما أشارت إلى عدم وجود فروق دالة إحصائياً بين أفراد المجموعتين التجريبية والضابطة في القياس البعدي لمكونات تركيب الجسم، بينما أظهرت النتائج وجود فروق دالة إحصائياً في القياس البعدي للمهارات الأساسية في الكاراتيه وجاءت لصالح أفراد المجموعة التجريبية. وأوصى الباحثون بضرورة الاسترشاد بالبرنامج التدريبي المقترح من قبل مدربي أندية الكاراتيه (الكاتا) في الضفة الغربية خاصة في مرحلة التدريب على مهارات رياضة الكاراتيه الأساسية.

Ecotoxicological effects of heavy metal bioaccumulation in two trophic levels.

The pollution generated by the heavy metals (HM) contained in mining wastes (tailings) is a worldwide recognized environmental concern. Due to the persistence, toxicity, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification capacity through the food chains, the release of HM into the environment causes negative effects on human health and the ecosystems. Wigandia urens Kunth (Boraginaceae) is a plant species that naturally establishes and grows in tailings and is consumed by the grasshopper Sphenarium purpurascens Charpentier (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae). HM accumulation in this plant and their subsequent consumption by defoliating insects allow these contaminants to enter the food webs and favor their biomagnification. This study evaluated the effect of HM bioaccumulation in the leaf tissue of W. urens on the characteristics associated with its physical defense against herbivores and the effect of HM exposure on population parameters of grasshoppers through their ontogeny under controlled conditions. The results showed a significant increase in leaf hardness and in the number of simple and glandular trichomes in the leaves of W. urens growing on mine tailing substrate compared to those grown on the control substrate without HM. W. urens individuals growing on mine tailing substrate presented the following heavy metal foliar bioaccumulation pattern: Fe > Zn > Pb > Cu. These metals were also bioaccumulated in individuals of S. purpurascens fed with leaves of the plants exposed to mine tailings, observing differences in their concentration pattern through ontogeny. Grasshoppers fed on leaf tissue containing HM showed higher mortality in the first two developmental instars and lower body biomass throughout their ontogeny in comparison to the individuals fed on leaf tissue of plants growing on the control treatment without HM. In conclusion, W. urens is a species with phytoremediation potential for soils contaminated with HM, since it is naturally established in contaminated sites, has a wide geographic distribution, and bioaccumulates significant amounts of different HM. Furthermore, as was observed in this report, the W. urens physical and chemical defense against herbivores was enhanced by HM exposure, compromising the fitness and development of the herbivore S. purpurascens through its ontogeny and thus interrupting the entry and transfer of heavy metal through the food chain.