Photovoltaic Value Research Articles

“We struggle to survive”: Exploring the whole systems energy injustices of solar photovoltaics in India

Solar photovoltaics (PV) are among the cheapest forms of energy globally and one of the most effective options for mitigating the climate crisis in the electricity sector. In 2023, solar PV accounted for roughly 75 % of renewable power capacity additions globally, and capacity is expected to grow 20-fold by 2050. However, the political ecologies of solar power are uneven. Throughout the value chain, there are numerous social and environmental injustices experienced by laborers and in communities that are converted to sacrifice zones for sustainable development. Despite being the world’s third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, India is developing solar infrastructures at a rapid pace to mitigate the climate crisis. Drawn from a rich collection of original data—household surveys, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and naturalistic observation across various sites—in this study, we investigate perceptions by laborers of the hidden injustices of solar energy at multiple nodes of the solar PV lifecycle or value chain: silica mining (Uttar Pradesh), solar panel manufacturing (Karnataka), solar park development (Rajasthan), solar park operation (Rajasthan), e-waste (Delhi) and recycling (Tamil Nadu). We conclude with novel findings and urgent recommendations for future policy and research on India’s solar PV value chain.

A circular economy roadmap for solar photovoltaics

Solar photovoltaics (PV) and other clean energy technologies are increasingly being deployed as an environmentally responsible and economic approach to energy system decarbonization. The shift from fossil fuel-centric to material-centric equipment has also shifted the consideration and management of environmental and societal impacts across the technology life cycle. Societal desire to reduce raw material needs, mitigate supply chain social and governance challenges, and take advantage of the reuse and recycling capabilities of materials has enhanced interest in regenerative economic models, called circular economies (CEs). A recent critical review documented that solar PV is on a “path towards increased circularity,” but the need remains to expand activities beyond recycling to a broader set of environmental and policy activities to fully realize the benefits [1,2]. Thus, the goal of this research roadmap is to facilitate and accelerate the transition to a solar PV CE by 1) highlighting current opportunities for PV value chain stakeholders to adopt circular strategies and 2) assessing research and development (R&D) needs that can be addressed in the short term to advance a CE for the solar industry.

Research on Static Evaluation of Economic Value of “Distributed PV +” Model

Due to the shortage of fossil energy, environmental pollution, climate change and a series of problems, China is developing photovoltaic (PV) energy and other clean sources of energy. The flexible application of photovoltaic energy makes is an ideal choice. First, this paper clearly describes the significance of the economic value of a PV + model, analyzes its composition of, and then builds the PV + economic value evaluation model. Finally, a PV + model from the agriculture and aquaculture industry is taken as an example to evaluate its economic value. Through data calculations, the feasibility of the PV + economic value evaluation model proposed in this paper is verified. The results show that the model can not only promote the development of photovoltaic energy, but also bring a spillover value to the decentralized economy. The contributions of this paper are as follows: (1) The existence of the spillover value of a PV + model is proposed for the first time. (2) The value of the distributed PV + model is revealed from its essential attributes and characteristics, and a method for the quantitative calculation of the spillover value is proposed. (3) Three cases of the spillover value for the economic value of the PV + model are proposed, and the relationship between the spillover value and local adoption of PV + model to absorb distributed PV is discussed.

Enhancing Photovoltaic Farm Capacity Estimation: A Comprehensive Analysis with a Novel Approach

This research paper addresses the inaccuracies in the current methods for estimating the capacity value of photovoltaic (PV) plants, which rely heavily on large‐scale data and fail to represent the actual capacity value pattern accurately. The research conducts case studies in Belgium, Texas, and California to analyze the impact of different factors on capacity value. It proposes a new metric called the Marginal Moving‐Average Limited‐Hours (MMALH) Equivalent Load‐Carring Capability (ELCC) ‐ Based capacity value. The proposed metric reduces the dependence on hourly data and better represents capacity value. The results from real case studies validate the effectiveness of the new metric, highlighting its novelty and contribution to the assessment of capacity value in PV power systems. The study emphasizes the importance of accurately assessing the capacity value of PV compared to conventional units, considering environmental factors and system parameters. The study exposes the shortcomings in current metrics and advocates for the MMALH ELCC methodology as a more precise evaluation approach. The research suggests optimizing design, employing advanced tracking systems, enhancing maintenance practices, and ensuring effective grid integration to boost solar plant efficiency. Consistent monitoring and analysis of the utilization factor are vital for pinpointing improvement areas and augmenting productivity.

A Novel Real-Time PV Error Handling Exploiting Evolutionary-Based Optimization

The crucial need for perpetual monitoring of photovoltaic (PV) systems, particularly in remote areas where routine inspections are challenging, is of major importance. This paper introduces an advanced approach to optimizing the maximum power point while ensuring real-time PV error handling. The overarching problem of securing continuous monitoring of photovoltaic systems is highlighted, emphasizing the need for reliable performance, especially in remote and inaccessible locations. The proposed methodology employs an innovative genetic algorithm (GA) designed to optimize the maximum power point of photovoltaic systems. This approach takes into account critical PV parameters and constraints. The single-diode PV modeling process, based on environmental variables like outdoor temperature, illuminance, and irradiance, plays a pivotal role in the optimization process. To specifically address the challenge of perpetual monitoring, the paper introduces a technique for handling PV errors in real time using evolutionary-based optimization. The genetic algorithm is utilized to estimate the maximum power point, with the PV voltage and current calculated on the basis of simulated values. A meticulous comparison between the expected electrical output and the actual photovoltaic data is conducted to identify potential errors in the photovoltaic system. A user interface provides a dynamic display of the PV system’s real-time status, generating alerts when abnormal PV values are detected. Rigorous testing under real-world conditions, incorporating PV-monitored values and outdoor environmental parameters, demonstrates the remarkable accuracy of the genetic algorithm, surpassing 98% in predicting PV current, voltage, and power. This establishes the proposed algorithm as a potent solution for ensuring the perpetual and secure monitoring of PV systems, particularly in remote and challenging environments.

Prospective Techno‐Economic Analysis of 4T and 2T Perovskite on Silicon Tandem Photovoltaic Modules at GW‐Scale Production

Perovskite on silicon tandem (PST) photovoltaic (PV) modules promise power conversion efficiencies above 30% at low cost and therefore intrigue many in the PV industry. In order to transfer this technology from the lab onto the market, a techno‐economic analysis at an industrialized scale should be conducted on process routes with the potential for low‐cost scale‐up. Herein, such an analysis of four PST architectures by calculating the cost of ownership (COO) for the perovskite production process routes with an annual capacity of 1 GWp on a silicon heterojunction bottom cell in a bifacial module configuration is shown. The first two routes focus on 4‐terminal PSTs produced using vacuum processing, one each in p–i–n and n–i–p configurations. The remaining routes utilize slot‐die deposition as a single step or as the second step conversion of PbI2 for the perovskite deposition of a monolithic 2‐terminal perovskite on silicon cell. The process routes are analyzed in three scenarios taking into consideration the changing PV value chain up to 2030. The COOs are then used to determine the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for each device. The key parameters in the COO and LCOE calculations for further examination in a sensitivity analysis are identified.

From a promising technological niche to an established market niche: Solar photovoltaic niche formation in Iran

Transformation toward a low-carbon sustainable energy system is getting more recognition in oil-rich developing countries under pressure exerted by their growing environmental challenges and international treaties- including UN SDGs. This calls for concerted efforts for developing renewable energy technologies (RETs). In this regard, the current paper examines the historical development of the solar photovoltaic (PV) niche formation in Iran from 1990 to 2020 in two chronological phases, i.e., technological niches and market niches. We adopt strategic niche management framework and highlight the active role of government support should plays as a key prerequisite required for RET niches development in oil-rich developing countries (ORDCs) where market is heavily in favor of fossil sources of energy. Data was gathered through 19 semi-structured interviews as well as PV-related science and technology development activities. We found that while universities and research institutions played a pivotal role in PV technological niche formation, foreign direct investment (FDI) and local firms were instrumental in PV market niche development. Our findings provide recommendations to direct ORDCs in developing PV, which include proper implementation of feed-in tariff policy, enhanced collaboration among international and local actors, integrated and balanced development of the PV value chain, diversified application of PV in the residential and industrial sectors, and lastly, leveraging FDI and joint-ventures as means of promoting local technological capabilities, industrialization, and market expansion.

Energy Optimal Management of Microgrid With High Photovoltaic Penetration

In order to further reduce carbon emissions, a large number of distributed photovoltaics (PVs) are connected to customer sider, which can form microgrids (MGs) with high PV penetration combined with energy storage system (ESS) adopting droop control. Due to the uncontrollability of PV output and frequent charging and discharging of ESS, the economic optimization of MG with high PV penetration is full of challenges, especially island state. Aiming at the lowest daily operating cost, the multi-factor collaborative energy optimization models are established for the grid-connected and islanded MG respectively. Then using particle swarm optimization (PSO) with inertial weight factor to find the optimal solutions of the models under stable operating constraints, the day-ahead energy optimal management strategy (EOMS) for the MG is obtained. In order to reduce the influence of PV and load prediction errors on the energy management accuracy, model predictive control (MPC) is applied to improve the day-ahead EOMS, and intraday rolling horizon energy optimal management strategy (RHEOMS) is obtained. The RHEOMS corrects the forecast errors by feeding back the PV and load current operating value continuously and rolling updating the EOMS control value. The economy and effectiveness of the proposed strategies are verified on a typical MG with high PV penetration.

Investigation of Spirals Rectangular and Rectangular Tubes Collector Design in Photovoltaic Solar Cell Cooling Systems

As the primary basis for electricity production, fossil fuels continue to decline. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) can be developed by utilizing solar energy. However, solar PV has low efficiency due to overheating from solar irradiation. This article analyzed forced convection Sunwatt 50Wp solar PV water cooling to lower the PV temperature and increase efficiency. The heat exchanger uses a spiral and rectangular configuration mounted on the back of the Sunwatt 50Wp solar PV panel with water flow. Sunwatt 50Wp solar PV testing using a solar simulator at an intensity of 470 W/m2, 625 W/m2, 870 W/m2, and 1000 W/m2. The test results show a decreased working temperature on spiral cooling at all intensities compared to solar PV without cooling. This impacts the low-performance value of solar PV without cooling. The intensity of 1000 W/m2 has a high value due to the release of electrons from the atoms in the cell. These results impact increasing electricity efficiency in Sunwatt 50Wp solar PV by cooling. At high intensity, the temperature increases causing the ability to increase efficiency to decrease. However, water cooling can increase electrical efficiency because the particles are evenly distributed in the heat exchanger, which causes a high heat transfer rate.

Competitiveness of the value chain of distributed generation of photovoltaic energy in Brazil

This article diagnoses the competitiveness of the Brazilian value chain of photovoltaic (PV) distributed generation and identifies challenges and strategies to overcome them and strengthen the market. Literature analysis and interviews were conducted with 87 professionals from all value chain links. Results show that the competitiveness of the Brazilian PV industry is chiefly affected by the increased production costs, the high tax burden, and the lack of inspection and incentives for developing the production chain. Results also reveal the need to establish international collaborative arrangements to ensure agility in innovative processes and enable the country to increase its industrial photovoltaic competitiveness. Additionally, Brazil should intensify the connections between the links of main and auxiliary value chains to accelerate the development of the photovoltaic sector. The comprehensive diagnosis presented in this study helps to support academics, policymakers, regulators, and professionals involved in the PV value chain to develop investigations and actions to increase the sector's competitiveness and the participation of PV distributed generation in the national electricity matrix.

Physics-based electrical modelling of CIGS thin-film photovoltaic modules for system-level energy yield simulations

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a commercialized, high-efficiency thin-film photovoltaic (PV) technology. The state-of-the-art energy yield models for this technology have a significant normalized root mean square error (nRMSE) on power estimation: De Soto model—26.7%; PVsyst model—12%. In this work, we propose a physics-based electrical model for CIGS technology which can be used for system-level energy yield simulations by people across the PV value chain. The model was developed by considering models of significant electrical current pathways from literature and adapting it for the system-level simulation. We improved it further by incorporating temperature and irradiance dependence of parameters through characterisation at various operating conditions. We also devised a module level, non-destructive characterization strategy based on readily available measurement equipment to obtain the model parameters. The model was validated using the measurements from multiple commercial modules and has a significantly lower power estimation nRMSE of 1.2%.

Understanding the evolution of photovoltaic value chain from a global perspective: Based on the patent analysis

Solar photovoltaic (PV) is one of the optimal alternatives to solve the problem of traditional fuel shortage due to its clean and safe characteristics. However, the boundaries of PV national innovation systems are blurring, and the PV value chain is gradually modularized in the context of innovation and product globalization. The paper explores the spatiotemporal evolution of the PV value chain based on priority patent applications from a global perspective. Our findings highlight the global innovation activities in developing PV technology are uneven in the temporal dimension, and the center of PV technology innovation has experienced a rapid spatial shift in the context of globalization. Developing the PV technological components was initially concentrated in a few countries or regions and then showed a tendency for spatial dispersion. However, the development of PV technology concentrated again after the global financial crisis. Moreover, there are distinct comparative technology advantages and disadvantages of the PV technological components or trajectories across crucial countries or regions. Our findings contribute to a theoretical description of the spatiotemporal evolution of developing PV technology at a global level and help policy-makers or company managers better understand the evolution of the PV industrial value chain from the perspective of the global innovation system.

A metaheuristic algorithm based on simulated annealing for optimal sizing and techno-economic analysis of PV systems with multi-type of battery energy storage

The battery energy storage unit is one of the main components of hybrid photovoltaic (PV)/battery systems to ensure the economy and reliability of the system to satisfy the electrical loads of green building, especially in remote areas. The main objective of this study is the establishment of a method for optimal design of PV arrangements based on multi-type of battery, in which the annual system cost (ASC) and the loss of load supply probability of the hybrid systems are simultaneously minimized. The hybrid method with simulated annealing and a harmony search methods is suggested in the sizing of the hybrid systems based on three types of energy storage which are lithium-ion, absorbed glass mat, and lead-acid. To calculate the future performance of the hybrid scheme, the effect of reliability index variations and the battery unit cost variations on the sizing problem, ASC, and also loss of power probability are calculated. The simulation results show that the battery storage level increases by increasing the ideal unite of PV and storage values to maintain the system reliability level. Also, it is found that an efficient battery type with the optimal size is techno-economically more beneficial, and leads to greater system reliability.

Dynamic material flow analysis of silicon photovoltaic modules to support a circular economy transition

AbstractSolar photovoltaics (PV) are the fastest growing renewable energy technologies for clean, cheap, and sustainable electricity generation. To prepare for rapid scale‐up, the PV industry needs to project material requirements to build out all aspects of the supply chain appropriately and plan to handle large volumes of module waste. Impacts of deploying different material circularity strategies to reduce waste and conserve primary resources need to be quantified to inform sustainable material management. Here, we introduce the photovoltaic dynamic material flow analysis (PV DMFA) model based on PV electricity generation. The model quantifies material flows and stocks in the cradle‐to‐cradle life cycles of utility‐scale c‐Si PV systems in the United States through 2100. We present case studies for solar flat glass and aluminum frame materials under various scenarios to project the impacts of PV performance, reliability, and processing parameters, material circularity strategies, and module design shifts. In the absence of circularity measures, ~100 million MT of flat glass and ~12 million MT of aluminum would be needed for PV installations by 2100 to meet projected growth in domestic utility PV demand to nearly 1000 TWh in 2100. With optimistic but feasible improvements in efficiency, reliability, and circularity, material intensity and waste could be reduced by nearly 50%. Efficient module collection, minimally intrusive recycling, and careful scrap handling and cleaning could improve material circularity in the PV value chain. This model serves as a sustainability data support tool that may aid in the circular economy transition for PV systems.

Sustainability, Criticality, and Circularity in PV: Using SDG 12 as a Lens to Map Sectoral Gaps

Multiple activities in the photovoltaic (PV) sector demonstrate a will to improve environmental impacts, reduce critical material uses and waste generated by linear supply chains. A common understanding of the remaining priority gaps in sustainability is, however, lacking, hindering the implementation of strategic courses of action. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 (SDG 12), targeting sustainable consumption and production, constitutes an entry point for PV stakeholders to examine their impacts holistically by reconciling ecological sustainability, criticality, and circularity. This article introduces a framework to map sustainability strategies in PV under the lens of SDG 12. A gap analysis is conducted to identify the current sustainability performances of PV value chains. The readiness level of the sector to close each gap is then evaluated, thus highlighting the “low hanging fruits” and the more consequent efforts required to achieve sustainability. Overall, a lack of common key performance indicators is noticed, resulting in a fragmented and uncertain sustainability landscape. A need for more coherence, sustainability leadership, and collaboration at the sectoral level is identified for all topics of SDG 12. In particular, the implementation of circularity strategies is linked to substantial technoeconomic hurdles, which need to be addressed.

Multistakeholder assessments of the value of distributed photovoltaics for different retail market arrangements

The cost fall of solar photovoltaics (PV) in the last decade has driven remarkable deployment of PV worldwide. A proportion of this deployment has occurred within the distribution network, potentially having a significant economic impact on both private industry stakeholders and society as a whole. Hence, the impacts of distributed PV have raised growing concerns on how to maximize PV societal values while managing potential negative impacts on key stakeholders. However, a review, evaluation, and comparison of the societal PV value and the stakeholder private PV values, together with a thorough analysis of their connections and challenges, are still lacking in the literature. In this article, we first propose some clear definitions underpinning the concepts of societal PV value and private PV value, to then review the literature and assess them for different electricity stakeholders and retail market arrangements. From the study of the Australian National Electricity Market, we found significant misalignments and conflicts between societal and private PV values due to a number of market failures, meaning that there are still not appropriate economic incentives for industry stakeholders to maximise the value of PV for society. Moreover, the total value of PV for residential PV customers falls within the possible range of PV values for society, although without the right price signals.

Project developer options to enhance the value of solar electricity as solar and storage penetrations increase

Increasing the penetration of photovoltaics (PV) reduces the marginal grid value of PV electricity. The declining grid value of PV with higher penetration could limit the technology’s economic attractiveness and future demand. Various strategies have been proposed for preserving this value. Using a consistent framework, we analyze the net value (accounting for both cost and grid value) of more than ten strategies in the United States. Here, grid value is estimated from coincident wholesale power market prices and PV generation using observed historical prices or modeled future prices with up to 30% PV penetration. We find that established and emerging strategies designed to shift the timing of standalone PV generation at the expense of total generation—including orienting monofacial PV modules west or bifacial modules vertically—result in minor net-value benefits or penalties. Adding energy storage to such systems magnifies the net-value loss, because configurations that change the timing of PV production become redundant when the energy-shifting capabilities of storage are added. The largest net-value gains come from strategies that maximize generation (solar tracking plus oversized PV arrays) in conjunction with storage, especially at high PV penetrations. PV systems are long-lived assets. Our results suggest that efforts to promote generation-maximizing strategies today may yield increasing net-value benefits as PV and storage deployments continue to accelerate in the United States over the coming decades.

A Systematic Literature Review of the Solar Photovoltaic Value Chain for a Circular Economy

As the solar photovoltaic market booms, so will the volume of photovoltaic (PV) systems entering the waste stream. The same is forecast for lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles, which at the end of their automotive life can be given a second life by serving as stationary energy storage units for renewable energy sources, including solar PV. The main objective of this paper is to systematically review the “state-of-the-art” research on the solar PV value chain (i.e., from product design to product end-of-life), including its main stages, processes, and stakeholder relationships, in order to identify areas along the value chain where circular strategies could be implemented, thereby advancing the transition of the PV industry towards circularity. To achieve this goal, we conducted a systematic literature review of 148 peer-reviewed articles, published in English between 2000 and 2020. Results show the PV value chain has been studied from a forward flow supply chain perspective and mostly from a technological point of view, with little regard for circular design, circular business models, and PV reuse. This article thus takes an integrated value chain perspective, introduces some of the barriers to circularity that industry players face, and argues that these barriers represent future opportunities for incumbent and new entrants to innovate within a circular PV industry.

A Review on Artificial Intelligence Applications for Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic Systems

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) is increasing in various sectors of photovoltaic (PV) systems, due to the increasing computational power, tools and data generation. The currently employed methods for various functions of the solar PV industry related to design, forecasting, control, and maintenance have been found to deliver relatively inaccurate results. Further, the use of AI to perform these tasks achieved a higher degree of accuracy and precision and is now a highly interesting topic. In this context, this paper aims to investigate how AI techniques impact the PV value chain. The investigation consists of mapping the currently available AI technologies, identifying possible future uses of AI, and also quantifying their advantages and disadvantages in regard to the conventional mechanisms.

Optimal Sizing of Rooftop PV and Battery Storage for Grid-Connected Houses Considering Flat and Time-of-Use Electricity Rates

This paper investigates a comparative study for practical optimal sizing of rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage systems (BESSs) for grid-connected houses (GCHs) by considering flat and time-of-use (TOU) electricity rate options. Two system configurations, PV only and PV-BESS, were optimally sized by minimizing the net present cost of electricity for four options of electricity rates. A practical model was developed by considering grid constraints, daily supply of charge of electricity, salvation value and degradation of PV and BESS, actual annual data of load and solar, and current market price of components. A rule-based energy management system was examined for GCHs to control the power flow among PV, BESS, load, and grid. Various sensitivity analyses are presented to examine the impacts of grid constraint and electricity rates on the cost of electricity and the sizes of the components. Although the capacity optimization model is generally developed for any case study, a grid-connected house in Australia is considered as the case system in this paper. It is found that the TOU-Flat option for the PV-BESS configuration achieved the lowest NPC compared to other configuration and options. The optimal capacities of rooftop PV and BESS were obtained as 9 kW and 6 kWh, respectively, for the PV-BESS configuration with TOU-Flat according to two performance metrices: net present cost and cost of electricity.