Photovoltaic Module Temperature Research Articles

Real-time junction temperature estimation model of photovoltaic modules for determining application scenarios

Junction temperature is an important factor affecting the power generation efficiency and service life of photovoltaic (PV) modules, and it is also the main parameter for calculating temperature rise loss of PV stations. At present, the real-time junction temperature estimation models of PV modules under natural environmental conditions reveal such problems as low accuracy and restricted application scenarios. In this paper, we propose a method which requires the following actions: analyzing the influence factors of the junction temperature of PV modules; selecting an adequate junction temperature estimation model based on the main influence factors (such as radiative cooling, wind speed, irradiance and thermal delay effect) and the capability of PV stations to obtain calculation parameters; optimizing and selecting the key variables step by step that are involved in the model. Then, we analyze the coincidence probabilities of the model under different environmental conditions and the discrete degree of the operating temperature of PV modules to obtain ideal application scenarios of the model. This provides an accurate reference for on-site engineers to apply the model. The example verification shows that the coincidence probabilities of the real-time junction temperature estimation model within the error range of ±1.5 °C, ±2.5 °C, ±3.5 °C and ±5.0 °C reach 72.61 %, 88.65 %, 95.29 % and 98.51 %, respectively, which features high estimation accuracy, convenient use, high efficiency and wide application scenarios.

Thermal management of photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator hybrid system using radiative cooling and heat pipe

Temperature regulation of photovoltaic modules is crucial for improving their efficiency. Nowadays, radiative cooling is a widely adopted passive thermal management technique for photovoltaic systems. Heat pipe and radiative cooling are two primary passive photovoltaic cooling methods employed in photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator hybrid systems. Therefore, this study proposes a novel photovoltaic-heat pipe-thermoelectric generator-radiative cooling hybrid system by applying heat pipe and radiative cooling simultaneously to control the temperature of the photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator hybrid system. A detailed computational model of the proposed system is developed and analyzed in the COMSOL Multiphysics. A comparative analysis of the photovoltaic module temperature drop and its efficiency enhancement between the proposed and the reference system consisting of only a photovoltaic module is performed. The effects of solar radiation, ambient temperature, and wind speed on both systems are studied under the Atacama Desert and Las Vegas climatic conditions. This proposed configuration reduced the photovoltaic temperature by efficiently evacuating its residual heat using a heat pipe and then rejecting it to the atmosphere using a radiative cooler. Results show that in contrast to the reference system, the proposed system reduced the average photovoltaic operating temperature by 2 °C for both the summer and winter seasons of the Atacama Desert and by 13 °C for Les Vegas. The maximum and minimum reductions of the photovoltaic temperature in the proposed system, as compared to the reference system, are 4 °C and 1.5 °C respectively, in June and 9 °C and 1 °C respectively, in January for the Atacama Desert. The maximum PV conversion efficiency and energy production improvements as compared to the reference system are 0.8% & 1.03% respectively, (for summer), and 0.3% & 0.94% respectively, (for winter) for the Atacama Desert, and 1.8% & 7.2% respectively, for the Las Vegas environment. The expected range of LCOE for a hybrid PV-HP-TEG-RC system is found to be between 0.065-0.089 USD/kWh. This study can help in improving the energy conversion efficiency by controlling the photovoltaic temperature using passive cooling methods in harsh environmental conditions such as the desert locations.

A dynamic thermal model for a photovoltaic module under varying atmospheric conditions

Operating temperature strongly affects the performance of the photovoltaic module. Thus, the accurate estimation of the module temperature plays an important role in the assessment of photovoltaic system generation. In this article, it was shown that the existing empirical models are characterized by a limited accuracy in determining the module temperature under varying atmospheric conditions, and the estimation error exceeded 25 °C. This feature of empirical models results from the neglect of the thermal inertia of the module. To solve this problem, a dynamic thermal model for the photovoltaic module was proposed. The proposed model is based on the Finite Difference Method and only uses data on the ambient temperature, solar irradiation, and wind speed. The model coefficients were optimized using the Particle Swarm Optimization method. Developed model was benchmarked against field measurements at the Silesian University of Technology, Poland. The performance of the proposed model was also compared with the performance of the dynamic thermal model proposed by Barry et al., using measurements from systems located in the Allgäu region, Germany. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed dynamic thermal model for the correct calculation of the photovoltaic module temperature under varying weather conditions. The temperature estimation error did not exceed 9 °C.

Experimental Study to Improve Solar Photovoltaic Performance by Utilizing PCM and Finned Wall

The temperature of a photovoltaic (PV) module has a significant impact on the module's ability to produce electricity. PV cells module’s passive cooling is critical for increasing electrical efficiency and power output. In this work, two scenarios of the passive cooling technique were presented for use in the cooling of the monocrystalline silicon PV modules. An aluminium finned wall and a combination of aluminium finned wall with phase change material were connected to the backside of the PV in order to bring the working temperature down and maintain it under the hot climate conditions in southern Iraq. Paraffin wax was employed as a PCM placed into an aluminium container with internal and exterior longitudinal aluminium fins in order to enhance the PCM's poor thermal conductivity, speed up the rates at which it melts and solidifies, and increase the amount of heat that is dissipated through free convection heat transfer. The PV modules were simultaneously tested and compared with a PV reference module under different solar radiation. According to the findings, the average temperature of the PV-Aluminium Finned wall-PCM module is reduced by 19.9 degrees Celsius when compared with the temperature of the reference PV module. This results in an increase in the average maximum output power of up to 23.1% compared to an identical reference PV module. Furthermore, the average electrical efficiency of the PV-Aluminium Finned wall-PCM is enhanced by 23.2% during the testing time from 9:00 AM to 12:00 PM in July 2022 at maximum solar radiation of 1130.7 W/m2 when compared with the PV reference module under the same conditions. This indicates a significant increase in both electrical and thermal performance. The testing took place in July 2022.

Computational fluid dynamics modelling of microclimate for a vertical agrivoltaic system

The increasing worldwide population is leading to a continuous increase in energy and food demand. These increasing demands have led to fierce land-use conflicts as we need agricultural land for food production while striving towards renewable energy systems such as large-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, which also require in most of the cases agricultural flat land for implementation. It is therefore essential to identify the interrelationships between the food, and energy sectors and develop sustainable solutions to achieve global goals such as food and energy security. A technology that has shown promising potential in supporting food and energy security, as well as supporting water security, is agrivoltaic (AV) systems. This technology combines conventional farm activities with PV systems on the same land. Understanding the microclimatic conditions in an AV system is essential for an accurate assessment of crop yield potential as well as for the energy performance of the PV systems. Nevertheless, the complex mechanisms governing the microclimatic conditions under agrivoltaic systems represent an underdeveloped research area. In this study, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for a vertical AV system is developed and validated. The CFD model showed PV module temperature estimation errors in the order of 0–2 °C and ground temperature errors in the order of 0–1 °C. The shading caused by the vertical PV system resulted in a reduction of solar irradiance by 38%. CFD modelling can be seen as a robust approach to analysing microclimatic parameters and assessing AV system performance.

Assessment of improved models for predicting PV module temperature and their electrical performance in a semi-arid coastal region

ABSTRACT The performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules is affected by the increase in their operating temperature. Accurate and reliable prediction of the PV module operating temperature (T M ) is useful for evaluating their electrical performance and productivity and predicting the maximum power point under changing weather conditions. Based on experimental measurements collected during 1 year by a station placed in a semi-arid coastal region, in Morocco, several models are investigated to predict T M of polycrystalline PV modules. Starting from existing models in the literature, models have been developed to improve the accuracy of their prediction in the studied climate. The results show that irradiance (G) and ambient temperature are the most influential parameters for estimating the T M of the studied PV module. The accuracy of the prediction can be improved by introducing the effects of V w and RH in the proposed models. In addition, using the physical parameter extraction results of the studied modules, equations are established to approximately predict their behavior as a function of T M and G. Taking into account the proposed T M models, these equations describing the physical parameter evolution can constitute an important basis for predicting PV module performance under real operating conditions.

Temperature Effects on Optimal Performance of PV Module

The commonly used renewable energy source (RES) is solar energy. However, the production of this energy from PV modules has a lot of challenges and still needs technological improvement. This research investigates the effects of temperature on Photovoltaic (PV) module optimal performance. An experimental setup of a Monocrystalline (MC) module was used and data on the temperature and other parameters were measured using appropriate measuring tools. The relationship between module temperature and other parameters was evaluated using Pearson product correlation. The findings of this study showed that the temperature is significant for the Monocrystalline PV module to operate at its optimal. Also, the finding revealed that there is a weak correlation between the open circuit voltage (OCV) of the panel and the temperature, however, the PV module temperature has a strong and positive correlation with other parameters namely; solar irradiance, short circuit current (SCC), output power and conversion efficiency (CE) with a correlation coefficient (CC) of 0.94, 0.93, 0.92 and 0.93 respectively. The conversion efficiency of the PV module increases when its temperature is within the maximum operating temperature and tends to decrease when the temperature is beyond the design operating temperature of the module. This implies that temperature is also a key parameter to consider when designing a PV module system for optimal performance. This research recommends that temperature should be considered in the design of PV modules to power any equipment or machines for better performance.

Software-hardware complex for diagnosing the technical condition of photovoltaic station equipment

In the article, a software-hardware complex for diagnosing the equipment of photovoltaic stations was developed. First of all, the article deals with the assessment of the technical condition of photovoltaic modules as an element that has the greatest influence on the generation of solar power plants. Since photovoltaic stations occupy a prominent place in the balance of power and electricity of electric power systems, it is important to know the amount of electricity and according to what possible time schedule photovoltaic stations can generate it. In addition to the insolation of the sun, another reason for the unstable generation of photovoltaic stations is their technical condition, in particular, the gradual degradation of photovoltaic modules. For the participation of photovoltaic stations in the process of balancing power and electricity in the electric power systems, it is necessary to know their current technical condition and prospects regarding the possibility of generating electricity in a given volume. The investor is also interested in the evaluation of the technical condition of the photovoltaic stations. For the planning of electricity generation and the feasibility of the costs for the repair of the photovoltaic stations, the investor is also interested. In particular, it is about the residual resource of the photovoltaic stations in relation to the estimated resource at the start of operation. This puts forward appropriate conditions for the methods and means of assessing the technical condition of the photovoltaic stations. As for the photovoltaic modules, it is necessary to monitor the indicator coefficients that indicate the abnormal operation of the photovoltaic modules in the string and actually signal the presence of a problem in its operation. Software-hardware complex allows checking the contact connections of the photovoltaic stations and determine whether the resistances of the contact connections are within the permissible limits. If necessary, a database is formed using a quadcopter. With the help of a thermal imager and a pyrometer, the photovoltaic modules is examined for defects manifested by areas with a temperature higher than the temperature of an exploitation photovoltaic modules. Defects of elements are detected on photovoltaic modules, which are examined in more detail. To determine the degree of efficiency of the photovoltaic modules, a database is formed for the construction and comparison of separates current-voltage characteristic. The information is transferred to a laptop, where it is processed by a developed program for detecting and diagnosing the appearance of defects or damages, as well as determining the coefficients of the remaining resource and the coefficients indicating the abnormal operation of the photovoltaic modules. Based on these results, a decision is made regarding the expediency of further photovoltaic modules operation. The possibility of their recovery or complete replacement is determined.

Effect of zirconium oxide nanofluid on the behaviour of photovoltaic–thermal system: An experimental study

Recently, photovoltaic technology applications have occupied a wide range in electric generation. The temperature rising higher than the operating temperature permissible is the weak point facing this technology, which significantly influences the performance of the photovoltaic cells. Using nanofluids as the coolant of photovoltaic (PV) modules is an effective method, circulating nanofluids in the heat exchanger attached to the backside of the PV module to absorb excess heat and enhance the performance of the PV module. The current work investigates using zirconium oxide (ZrO 2) nanofluid as a coolant at different volume concentrations (0.015 vol%, 0.025 vol%, 0.0275 vol%) in deionized (DI) water to reduce the temperature of the photovoltaic PV cells and then analyses the performance from the energy/exergy viewpoints. The results indicate that the PV module temperature was reduced by 10.2 °C when cooled by ZrO 2 nanofluid at 0.0275% volume concentration in DI water compared to the reference PV module, resulting in remarkable system energy and exergy enhancement. Besides, the cooling by DI water has decreased the PV module temperature by 5.1 °C. The overall efficiencies gradually increment with an increase in volume concentration by 8.9%, 18.8 % and 24.4%, respectively, compared with PV modules cooled by DI water. Using ZrO 2 nanofluids with 0.0275 vol% could enhance the exergy efficiency by 66.8% and reduce the exergy losses and entropy generation by 7% and 26%, respectively.

Energy and exergy analysis for photovoltaic modules cooled by evaporative cooling techniques

A large part of incident solar radiation on photovoltaic (PV) modules is converted into heat, leading to overheating and reduction of PV modules performance. The present work investigates the impact of rectangular aluminium fins (RAFs) and evaporative cooling represented by cotton wicks immersed water (CWWs) on the performance and thermal behaviour of the PV module. Results indicate that the evaporative cooling attained better cooling potential than RAFs, in which the PV module temperature was reduced by 22.3%, and the output power was enhanced by 73% thanks to continuous cooling of the PV module. A slight improvement in the PV module performance was observed with RAFs due to the increased heat transfer area, which reduced temperature by up to 6.7% and increased the output power of the PV module by up to 21.3 %. Exergy analysis shows a gradual increment of the electrical exergy and exergy efficiency using CWWs, which reduces the entropy generation of it more than RAFs. The study concluded that PV modules without cooling in hot climate areas may deteriorate their performance significantly.

Using Machine Learning for Analysis a Database Outdoor Monitoring of Photovoltaic System

In this paper, a new method for analyzing a databaseofoutdoor monitoring of photovoltaic system using machine learninghas been proposed, a Photovoltaic (PV) module (150 w) located in Algiers has been monitored for 80 days and the obtained results have been analyzed.The researchers face many difficulties one of the most significant ones is in terms of collecting and analyzing the obtained results, especially for long period of time of monitoring. In this paper we proposea new methodto analyze the results by machine learningusing Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier. Insuch away, we regroup a data variable to multiclass for according and analysis using SVM. Whichhave presented thoroughly all the classificationsteps. Using method ofartificial intelligence (machine learning), recorded data, and thepower output for a given photovoltaic module (PV) technology, types, and small or large stations under any seasons itmakes analysis and processing easy. Themeasurementsofthisworkswere investigated based on the recorded data by acquisition (Keysight 34972A). The system takes measurements data from sensors in a database ready for analysis. The data was taken from the measurement system from 05h00to 21h00 with irradiation of 50 W/m2, which is a starting point, however in 0 to 50 W/m2the system cannot detect any photovoltaic effect. Results predict that the performance ratio (PR) from a Poly-crystallinePV module was around 85.28 % for a different season’s exposure and 727 point analyses at irradiation of 850-950 W/m2at the same time 14h00-15h00. The temperature of a photovoltaic PV module isas wellcalculated and compared with different irradiation and time.

Viewing convection as a solar farm phenomenon broadens modern power predictions for solar photovoltaics

Heat mitigation for large-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays is crucial to extend lifetime and energy harvesting capacity. PV module temperature is dependent on site-specific farm geometry, yet common predictions consider panel-scale and environmental factors only. Here, we characterize convective cooling in diverse PV array designs, capturing combined effects of spatial and atmospheric variation on panel temperature and production. Parameters, including row spacing, panel inclination, module height, and wind velocity, are explored through wind tunnel experiments, high-resolution numerical simulations, and operating field data. A length scale based on fractal lacunarity encapsulates all aspects of arrangement (angle, height, etc.) in a single value. When applied to the Reynolds number Re within the canonical Nusselt number heat transfer correlation, lacunarity reveals a relationship between convection and farm-specific geometry. This correlation can be applied to existing and forthcoming array designs to optimize convective cooling, ultimately increasing production and PV cell life.

Row spacing as a controller of solar module temperature and power output in solar farms

When the temperature of solar photovoltaic modules rises, efficiency drops and module degradation accelerates. The spatial arrangement of solar modules can affect convective cooling and, consequently, module temperatures. However, the impact of row spacing on convective cooling in realistic solar farms has not yet been studied. Here, we develop six solar farm arrangements consisting of a fixed number of rows with varying streamwise row spacing. We model the flow and heat transfer of each solar farm using high-resolution large-eddy simulations. Results indicate that increasing row spacing can enhance convective cooling by 14.8%, which reduces module temperature by 6.6 °C and increases power output by 4.0% on average.

Technoeconomic Analysis of Changing PV Array Convective Cooling Through Changing Array Spacing

Accuracy in photovoltaic (PV) module temperature modeling is crucial to achieving precision in energy performance yield calculations and subsequent economic evaluations of PV projects. While there have been numerous approaches to PV temperature modeling based on both the steady-state and transient thermal assumptions, there have been few attempts to account for changing convective cooling on PV module surfaces resulting from changes in the PV system layout. Changes in system row spacing, in particular, can have a meaningful impact on module electrical efficiency and subsequent economic performance, even when considering additional costs from the changes in row spacing. Using a heat transfer approach based on the spatial definition of a PV array, technoeconomic analyses of different plant configurations are presented here that show an improved system levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for fixed-tilt PV systems when increasing system row spacing. These LCOE improvements have been found to be as high as 2.15% in climates characterized by low ambient temperatures and higher average annual wind speeds in U.S. climates. While the LCOE improvements are primarily driven by incident irradiance changes for altered row spacing, the waterfall analysis of the different components of changing system LCOE show that modifications in the heat transfer dynamics have a 0.5% contribution to the LCOE reduction for the largest LCOE, compared with a 3.3% reduction from irradiance changes.

Energy and exergy assessment of photovoltaic-thermal system using tungsten trioxide nanofluid: An experimental study

• Serpentine pipes and WO3 nanofluids has proposed to improve PV module efficiency. • Reducing the PV module temperature by 21.4% has enhanced overall efficiency by 29.6%. • Heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number have enhanced with low pressure drop. • Exergy losses and entropy generation were reduced by 10% and 34.8%, respectively. The temperature rising of the photovoltaic (PV) modules is a major issue leading to a reduction in their conversion efficiency and low output power. Therefore, removing heat from the PV module is necessary to permanently work and improve the electrical power output. Serpentine pipes and a thermal absorber plate has proposed with fluid circulation to reduce the PV cell temperature and improve their efficiency. The current work experimentally investigates the effect of using tungsten trioxide (WO 3 ) nanofluids on the PVT system's energy and exergy efficiency at different volume concentrations of 0. 5 vol%, 0. 75 vol%, and 1 vol%. The results indicated an increment in the electrical power output by 11.15 W due to reducing the PV temperature by 21.4% and enhancing the PVT overall efficiency by 29.6% compared with the cooling by Deionized (DI) water. Increasing the volume concentration of nanoparticles increased the Reynolds number, and the Nusselt number enhanced the heat transfer coefficient and increased the pressure drop. Improving the thermal properties of the nanofluid has increased the electrical exergy efficiency and lowered the thermal exergy efficiency due to the reduction in thermal exergy quality. Compared to DI water cooling, exergy losses and entropy generation were reduced by 10% and 34.8%, respectively.

Assessment of photovoltaic module temperature estimation for four years with four different software

The software used today, on the estimation of module temperature of photovoltaic systems, seem very important to be analyzed. These estimates are crucial in future techno-economic and environmentally friendly analyses of the systems to reach better achievements for future generations. This is very important to reach lifetime analyses of long-term feasibility to find out payback time and the levelized cost of energy. The present work is based on this issue, to test the module temperature estimation formulas used by four commonly used software models, and to determine the most suitable software for temperature analyses of five different photovoltaic modules in Middle Anatolia. Outdoor truthful long-term testing is the main realistic approach to reach fundamental contemplations. After an introductory basic knowledge, the main materials and methods are discussed to enlighten the analysis. The main methodology is given and further prospects are enlightened. Four well-known software are analyzed using four years of outdoor testing of five different photovoltaic modules. Measured ambient temperature and solar irradiance are used in the categorization of the software estimation performances. PV*SOL appears to be superior at low irradiance and ambient temperature, whereas Helioscope appears to be superior overall.

Thermal mapping of photovoltaic module cooling via radiation-based phase change material matrix: A case study of a large-scale solar farm in Thailand

Under tropical conditions, an increase in solar irradiance abruptly increases the operating temperature of a Photovoltaic (PV) module. This, in turn, deteriorates the electric power conversion efficiency. Several studies have attempted to reduce the PV module temperature using Phase Change Materials (PCM), which is predominant among sensible heat storage materials. The main objective of this study is to examine the thermal variation over the surface of a PV module with a PCM matrix integrated behind the PV module without using physical contact. The contactless PCM matrix spaced 6 mm behind the PV module demonstrates remarkable cooling with controlled heat re-conduction during the off-peak sunshine hours. Our statistical approach to the PV module temperature clearly states that the distance between PV module and ground, wind direction, and stress in thermal dissipation are the key factors affecting thermal variation. Furthermore, the power production capacity of the developed PCM matrix is emphasised in a large-scale solar farm of 15 MWp under Thailand's climatic conditions. Notably, contactless PCM matrix is favourable for cooling the PV module by a maximum of 13.20 °C, compared with the other months and the corresponding power production is 12.05 MW.

A novel solar-driven water and electricity cogeneration integrated system by multistage vaporization enthalpy recycling

Satisfied the long-term demand for electricity and freshwater shortage in off grid and resource constrained areas through clean energy is particularly important in the context of comprehensive clean and green development. In this paper, a novel solar-driven freshwater-electricity cogeneration system was proposed, which has high efficiency solar-thermal-electrical conversion capability and outstanding thermal management performance. First, a solar-thermal-electrical coupling numerical model of the system was established, the energy transmission and transformation mechanism were analyzed, and the structural parameters such as the air gap and distillation stages were optimized to further improve the performance of the system. Second, guided by theoretical modeling, the outdoor experiment verified the outstanding thermal management performance through evaporative cooling of seawater and the efficient solar-electricity-steam conversion ability of the system. A photovoltaic module temperature was reduced to about 8 °C, as compared to the same photovoltaic module working alone. And the reduced photovoltaic module temperature led to a 0.86 % increase in average solar-electricity conversion efficiency. Meanwhile, a large amount of freshwater was obtained by consuming the waste heat of photovoltaic modules. The average water production rate was about 2.06 kg·m−2·h−1 under the real outdoor environment. Finally, the system has a stable self-cleaning ability without solid salt crystallization and efficient seawater desalination performance in freshwater production. Hence, this novel system not only realizes passive high energy transfer efficiency to produce freshwater and electricity, but also provides a strategy to solve the crisis of energy and water resources in the future.

Concepts for heat utilization and passive cooling techniques to improve reliability and performance of Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)

When integrated into urban environments, photovoltaic (PV) systems usually present operational temperatures that are significantly higher than those shown by rack-mounted systems. High operating temperatures are associated with reduced reliability of PV modules and significantly impact the electrical performance of solar cells. Utilizing the heat produced on PV modules or reducing operating temperatures can bolster their application within the building sector. We present the three main concepts studied to achieve these goals. First, a PV is a chimney concept that allows the use of the heat generated by the modules. Simulations for a PV chimney installed on a building in the Netherlands showed that although the heat quality produced inside its cavity was low, the potential use of the air mass flow for ventilation applications is promising. Additionally, we present two passive cooling solutions that can reduce the operating temperatures of PV modules: Optical filters and phase change materials. Experimental measurements in Delft showed that these solutions reduce the operating temperature of PV modules between 4 °C to 20 °C, particularly under high irradiance hours.

Lightweight Flexible Polyimide-Derived Laser-Induced Graphenes for High-Performance Thermal Management Applications

Laser pyrolysis of polyimide (PI) is a promising approach for preparing porous graphenes with hierarchical structures. In this study, we used a dual-focusing lens with a collimator to generate a highly concentrated CO2 laser beam with a high focal energy density. The resulting PI-derived graphene (PIDG) obtained under high-intensity laser irradiation possessed a high degree of graphitization, a low sheet resistance (27.4 Ω/sq.), and a large surface area (240.4 m2/g). Through optimization of the high-intensity laser parameters, we obtained a hierarchical PIDG possessing a fiber-like structure. We used this PIDG as a flexible heater and efficient heat sink for Si photovoltaic (PV) and light-emitting diode (LED) modules. The developed heater could reach a temperature of 202.6 °C under an applied voltage of 16 V, with rapid responses and remarkable flexibility. As a result of improved convective and radiative heat dissipation, the PIDG-based heat sink lowered the operating temperatures of the Si PV and LED modules efficiently. Accordingly, the power conversion efficiency of the Si PV and the lifetime of the LED module both increased dramatically.