Photosynthetic Gene Expression Research Articles

Influence of 5-aminolevulinic acid on photosynthetically related parameters and gene expression in Brassica napus L. under drought stress

ABSTRACTIn the present study, the roles of foliarly applied 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) in photosynthetic parameters, ion contents and expression of several photosynthetic genes were investigated in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) under well watered and drought conditions. Drought stress reduced relative plant growth rate and leaf water content (RWC), and contents of photosynthetic pigments, starch, soluble proteins and ions in roots. This type of stress, however, stimulated the accumulation of soluble sugars and free amino acids, as well as leaf proline contents. The transcript levels of photosynthetic genes were also down-regulated under drought stress. Exogenously applied ALA partially reduced growth inhibition and increased RWC and chlorophyll contents under drought conditions. The expression of photosynthetic genes was induced by ALA under both normal and drought conditions, which may contribute to an increased photosynthetic capacity. The ALA application further improved the accumulation of hexose and sucrose, accompanied by the maintenance of starch contents in the leaves and possibly relatively higher RWC under drought stress. Based on these results, we suggest that ALA promotes plant growth under drought stress via improving photosynthetic assimilation, increasing chlorophyll content and inducing the expression of several photosynthetic genes.

Light quality modifies the expression of photosynthetic genes in maize seedlings

Although maize (Zea mays L.) plants utilize light efficiently, the expression of high light-efficient genes and stomatal factors is regulated by light conditions and affects photosynthesis of plants. In this study, we investigated the effects of different light qualities on the expression of the photosynthetic genes, such as pep1, pdk1, ZmSTOMAGEN, and psad1, and on stomatal function in maize seedlings. For both maize genotypes, Zhengdan 958 and Xianyu 335, light with wavelengths shorter than 490 nm enhanced the expression of pdk1 and ZmSTOMAGEN, whereas the expression of pdk1 positively correlated with ZmSTOMAGEN. Light with wavelengths longer than 630 nm or shorter than 490 nm (band pass filter) increased the expression of pep1 and psad1. Although the expression of four genes in Zhengdan 958 was significantly higher than that of Xianyu 335, changes in the expression of ZmSTOMAGEN, pdk1, or pep1 exerted no significant influence on stomatal function and photosynthetic rate. Our results suggest that light with wavelengths shorter than 490 nm promoted the expression of stomatal proteins and pdk1, facilitated the absorption of inorganic elements, and contributed to stomatal function in photosynthesis. Meanwhile, light with wavelengths longer than 630 nm inhibited the expression of pep1 and pdk1. Light with wavelengths longer than 630 nm or shorter than 490 nm promoted the expression of pep1, pdk1, and psad1.

A Novel R2R3-MYB Transcription Factor BpMYB106 of Birch (Betula platyphylla) Confers Increased Photosynthesis and Growth Rate through Up-regulating Photosynthetic Gene Expression.

We isolated a R2R3-MYB transcription factor BpMYB106, which regulates photosynthesis in birch (Betula platyphylla Suk.). BpMYB106 mainly expresses in the leaf and shoot tip of birch, and its protein is localized in the nucleus. We further fused isolated a 1588 bp promoter of BpMYB106 and analyzed it by PLACE, which showed some cis-acting elements related to photosynthesis. BpMYB106 promoter β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter fusion studies gene, the result, showed the GUS reporter gene in transgenic birch with BpMYB106 promoter showed strong activities in shoot tip, cotyledon margins, and mature leaf trichomes. The overexpression of BpMYB106 in birch resulted in significantly increased trichome density, net photosynthetic rate, and growth rate as compared with the wild-type birch. RNA-Seq profiling revealed the upregulation of several photosynthesis-related genes in the photosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation pathways in the leaves of transgenic plants. Yeast one-hybrid analysis, coupled with transient assay in tobacco, revealed that BpMYB106 binds a MYB binding site MYB2 in differentially expressed gene promoters. Thus, BpMYB106 may directly activate the expression of a range of photosynthesis related genes through interacting with the MYB2 element in their promoters. Our study demonstrating the overexpression of BpMYB106—a R2R3-MYB transcription factor—upregulates the genes of the photosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation pathways to improve photosynthesis.

Photosynthetic Effect in Selenastrum capricornutum Progeny after Carbon-Ion Irradiation.

A large proportion of mutants with altered pigment features have been obtained via exposure to heavy-ion beams, a technique that is efficient for trait improvement in the breeding of plants and algae. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms by which the photosynthetic pigments are altered by heavy-ion irradiation. In our study, the photosynthetic characteristics of progenies from carbon-ion irradiated Selenastrum capricornutum were investigated. Five progenies deficient in chlorophyll a were isolated after carbon-ion exposure. Photosynthetic characteristics, photoprotection capacity and gene expression of the light-harvesting complex in these progenies were further characterized by the measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (Fv/Fm, ФPSII, NPQ, ETR), the de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle, the amount of lutein and quantitative real-time PCR. High maximum quantum yield of photosystem II at day 10 and high thermal dissipation ability were observed in progenies #23 and #37 under normal culture condition. Progenies #18, #19 and #20 showed stronger resistance against high levels of light steps than the control group (612–1077 μmol photons m -2 s -1, p< 0.05). The progenies #20 and #23 exhibited strong photoprotection by thermal dissipation and quenching of 3Chl* after 24 h of high light treatment. The mRNA levels of Lhcb5, Lhcbm5 and Lhcbm1 of the light-harvesting complex revealed markedly differential expression in the five progenies irradiated by carbon-ion beams. This work indicates that photosynthetic efficiency, photoprotection ability and the expression of light-harvesting antennae in unicellular green algae can be markedly influenced by irradiation. To our knowledge, this is the first report on changes in the photosynthetic pigments of green algae after treatment with carbon-ion beams.

WHITE PANICLE1, a Val-tRNA Synthetase Regulating Chloroplast Ribosome Biogenesis in Rice, Is Essential for Early Chloroplast Development.

Chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own genomes and transcriptional and translational systems. Establishing these genetic systems is essential for plant growth and development. Here we characterized a mutant form of a Val-tRNA synthetase (OsValRS2) from Oryza sativa that is targeted to both chloroplasts and mitochondria. A single base change in OsValRS2 caused virescent to albino phenotypes in seedlings and white panicles at heading. We therefore named this mutant white panicle 1 (wp1). Chlorophyll autofluorescence observations and transmission electron microscopy analyses indicated that wp1 mutants are defective in early chloroplast development. RNA-seq analysis revealed that expression of nuclear-encoded photosynthetic genes is significantly repressed, while expression of many chloroplast-encoded genes also changed significantly in wp1 mutants. Western-blot analyses of chloroplast-encoded proteins showed that chloroplast protein levels were reduced in wp1 mutants, although mRNA levels of some genes were higher in wp1 than in wild type. We found that wp1 was impaired in chloroplast ribosome biogenesis. Taken together, our results show that OsValRS2 plays an essential role in chloroplast development and regulating chloroplast ribosome biogenesis.

Effects of grafting on key photosynthetic enzymes and gene expression in the citrus cultivar Huangguogan.

Grafting influences scion photosynthetic capacity and fruit quality. Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), which strongly affects photosynthetic rate, and Rubisco activase (RCA), which regulates Rubisco activity, are two key photosynthetic enzymes. However, little information is available regarding the effect of grafting on the concentration and expression of Rubisco and RCA in the citrus cultivar Huangguogan. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of grafting Huangguogan plants onto trifoliate orange, tangerine, and orange on: 1) the concentration of Rubisco and RCA; 2) the mRNA levels of rbcL, rbcS, and rca; and 3) fruit quality. Overall, the results showed that when Huangguogan plants budded on tangerine and orange, they had better fruit quality, while on trifoliate orange they had higher Rubisco concentration. Tangerine and orange are probably the most suitable rootstocks for Huangguogan plants given the environmental conditions of Sichuan Province, China.

Functional Inactivation of Putative Photosynthetic Electron Acceptor Ferredoxin C2 (FdC2) Induces Delayed Heading Date and Decreased Photosynthetic Rate in Rice.

Ferredoxin (Fd) protein as unique electron acceptor, involved in a variety of fundamental metabolic and signaling processes, which is indispensable for plant growth. The molecular mechanisms of Fd such as regulation of electron partitioning, impact of photosynthetic rate and involvement in the carbon fixing remain elusive in rice. Here we reported a heading date delay and yellowish leaf 1 (hdy1) mutant derived from Japonica rice cultivar “Nipponbare” subjected to EMS treatment. In the paddy field, the hdy1 mutant appeared at a significantly late heading date and had yellow-green leaves during the whole growth stage. Further investigation indicated that the abnormal phenotype of hdy1 was connected with depressed pigment content and photosynthetic rate. Genetic analysis results showed that the hdy1 mutant phenotype was caused by a single recessive nuclear gene mutation. Map-based cloning revealed that OsHDY1 is located on chromosome 3 and encodes an ortholog of the AtFdC2 gene. Complementation and overexpression, transgenic plants exhibited the mutant phenotype including head date, leaf color and the transcription levels of the FdC2 were completely rescued by transformation with OsHDY1. Real-time PCR revealed that the expression product of OsHDY1 was detected in almost all of the organs except root, whereas highest expression levels were observed in seeding new leaves. The lower expression levels of HDY1 and content of iron were detected in hdy1 than WT’s. The FdC2::GFP was detected in the chloroplasts of rice. Real-time PCR results showed that the expression of many photosynthetic electron transfer related genes in hdy1 were higher than WT. Our results suggest that OsFdC2 plays an important role in photosynthetic rate and development of heading date by regulating electron transfer and chlorophyll content in rice.

The overexpression of the pine transcription factor PpDof5 in Arabidopsis leads to increased lignin content and affects carbon and nitrogen metabolism.

PpDof 5 is a regulator of the expression of glutamine synthetase (GS; EC 6.3.1.2) genes in photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic tissues of maritime pine. We have used Arabidopsis thaliana as a model system to study PpDof 5 function in planta, generating transgenic lines overexpressing the pine transcription factor. The overexpression of PpDof 5 resulted in a substantial increase of lignin content with a simultaneous regulation of carbon and nitrogen key genes. In addition, partitioning in carbon and nitrogen compounds was spread via various secondary metabolic pathways. These results suggest pleiotropic effects of PpDof 5 expression on various metabolic pathways of carbon and nitrogen metabolism. Plants overexpressing PpDof 5 exhibited upregulation of genes encoding enzymes for sucrose and starch biosynthesis, with a parallel increase in the content of soluble sugars. When the plants were grown under nitrate as the sole nitrogen source, they exhibited a significant regulation of the expression of genes involved mainly in signaling, but similar growth rates to wild-type plants. However, plants grown under ammonium exhibited major induction of the expression of photosynthetic genes and differential expression of ammonium and nitrate transporters. All these data suggest that in addition to controlling ammonium assimilation, PpDof 5 could be also involved in the regulation of other pathways in carbon and nitrogen metabolism in pine trees.

The chloroplastic DEVH-box RNA helicase INCREASED SIZE EXCLUSION LIMIT 2 involved in plasmodesmata regulation is required for group II intron splicing.

INCREASED SIZE EXCLUSION LIMIT 2 (ISE2) encodes a putative DEVH-box RNA helicase originally identified through a genetic screening for Arabidopsis mutants altered in plasmodesmata (PD) aperture. Depletion of ISE2 also affects chloroplasts activity, decreases accumulation of photosynthetic pigments and alters expression of photosynthetic genes. In this work, we show the chloroplast localization of ISE2 and decipher its role in plastidic RNA processing and, consequently, PD function. Group II intron-containing RNAs from chloroplasts exhibit defective splicing in ise2 mutants and ISE2-silenced plants, compromising plastid viability. Furthermore, RNA immunoprecipitation suggests that ISE2 binds in vivo to several splicing-regulated RNAs. Finally, we show that the chloroplast clpr2 mutant (defective in a subunit of a plastidic Clp protease) also exhibits abnormal PD function during embryogenesis, supporting the idea that chloroplast RNA processing is required to regulate cell-cell communication in plants.

Clade-Specific Quantitative Analysis of Photosynthetic Gene Expression in Prochlorococcus.

Newly designed primers targeting rbcL (CO2 fixation), psbA (photosystem II) and rnpB (reference) genes were used in qRT-PCR assays to assess the photosynthetic capability of natural communities of Prochlorococcus, the most abundant photosynthetic organism on Earth and a major contributor to primary production in oligotrophic oceans. After optimizing sample collection methodology, we analyzed a total of 62 stations from the Malaspina 2010 circumnavigation (including Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans) at three different depths. Sequence and quantitative analyses of the corresponding amplicons showed the presence of high-light (HL) and low-light (LL) Prochlorococcus clades in essentially all 182 samples, with a largely uniform stratification of LL and HL sequences. Synechococcus cross-amplifications were detected by the taxon-specific melting temperatures of the amplicons. Laboratory exposure of Prochlorococcus MED4 (HL) and MIT9313 (LL) strains to organic pollutants (PAHs and organochlorine compounds) showed a decrease of rbcL transcript abundances, and of the rbcL to psbA ratios for both strains. We propose this technique as a convenient assay to evaluate effects of environmental stressors, including pollution, on the oceanic Prochlorococcus photosynthetic function.

Unveiling the mechanism of melatonin impacts on maize seedling growth: sugar metabolism as a case.

Melatonin regulates growth in many plants; however, the mechanism remains unclear. In this study, exogenous melatonin feeding resulted in both promotional (≤10 μm) and inhibitory (≥100 μm) effects on maize seedling growth. Initial analyses suggested positive correlations between the amount of melatonin and sucrose synthesis and hydrolysis-related gene expression, enzyme activities, and sucrose metabolites. However, assays of photosynthetic rate, hexokinase (HxK) activity, expression of photosynthetic marker genes, and HxK-related genes showed opposite effects under 10 μm (positive) and 100 μm (negative) melatonin treatments. Similarly, 10 μm melatonin accelerated starch catabolism at night, whereas 100 μm melatonin significantly decreased this process and led to starch accumulation in photosynthetic tissues. Furthermore, expression analysis of genes related to sucrose phloem loading resulted in a slight upregulation of sucrose transporters (SUT1 and SUT2) when seedlings were induced with 10 μm melatonin, while treatment with 100 μm melatonin resulted in significant downregulation of these sucrose transporter genes (SUT1 and SUT2), as well as tie-dyed2 (Tdy2) and sucrose export defective 1. Taken together, these results suggest that low doses of melatonin benefit maize seedling growth by promoting sugar metabolism, photosynthesis, and sucrose phloem loading. Conversely, high doses of melatonin inhibit seedling growth by inducing the excessive accumulation of sucrose, hexose and starch, suppressing photosynthesis and sucrose phloem loading.

Chloroplast transcription, untangling the Gordian Knot.

Chloroplast transcription, untangling the Gordian Knot.

Effect of changes in the composition of cellular fatty acids on membrane fluidity of Rhodobacter sphaeroides.

The cellular fatty acid composition is important for metabolic plasticity in Rhodobacter sphaeroides. We explored the effects of changing the cellular ratio of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) to saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in R. sphaeroides by overexpressing several key fatty acid biosynthetic enzymes through the use of expression plasmid pRK415. Bacteria containing the plasmid pRKfabI1 with the fabI1 gene that encodes enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase showed a reduction in the cellular UFA to SFA ratio from 4 (80% UFA) to 2 (65% UFA) and had decreased membrane fluidity and reduced cell growth. Additionally, the ratio of UFA to SFA of the chromatophore vesicles from pRKfabI1 -containing cells was similarly lowered, and the cell had decreased levels of light-harvesting complexes, but no change in intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM) content or photosynthetic (PS) gene expression. Both inhibition of enoyl- ACP reductase with diazaborine and addition of exogenous UFA restored membrane fluidity, cell growth, and the UFA to SFA ratio to wild-type levels in this strain. R. sphaeroides containing the pRKfabB plasmid with the fabB gene that encodes the enzyme β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase I exhibited an increased UFA to SFA ratio from 4 (80% UFA) to 9 (90% UFA), but showed no change in membrane fluidity or growth rate relative to control cells. Thus, membrane fluidity in R. sphaeroides remains fairly unchanged when membrane UFA levels are between 80% and 90%, whereas membrane fluidity, cell growth, and cellular composition are affected when UFA levels are below 80%.

Arabidopsis DET1 Represses Photomorphogenesis in Part by Negatively Regulating DELLA Protein Abundance in Darkness

Arabidopsis De-etiolated 1 (DET1) is one of the key repressors that maintain the etiolated state of seedlings in darkness. The plant hormone gibberellic acid (GA) also participates in this process, and plants deficient in GA synthesis or signaling show a partially de-etiolated phenotype in darkness. However, how DET1 and the GA pathway work in concert in repressing photomorphogenesis remains largely unknown. In this study, we found that the abundance of DELLA proteins in det1-1 was increased in comparison with that in the wild-type plants. Mutation in DET1 changed the sensitivity of hypocotyl elongation of mutant seedlings to GA and paclobutrazol (PAC), an inhibitor of GA synthesis. However, we did not find obvious differences between det1-1 and wild-type plants with regard to the bioactive GA content or the GA signaling upstream of DELLAs. Genetic data showed that removal of several DELLA proteins suppressed the det1-1 mutant phenotype more obviously than GA treatment, indicating that DET1 can regulate DELLA proteins via some other mechanisms. In addition, a large-scale transcriptomic analysis revealed that DET1 and DELLAs play antagonistic roles in regulating expression of photosynthetic and cell elongation-related genes in etiolated seedlings. Taken together, our results show that DET1 represses photomorphogenesis in darkness in part by reducing the abundance of DELLA proteins.

Effects of paraquat on photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant enzymes, and gene expression in Chlorella pyrenoidosa under mixotrophic compared with autotrophic conditions.

Only limited information is available on herbicide toxicity to algae under mixotrophic conditions. In the present study, we studied the effects of the herbicide paraquat on growth, photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant enzymes, and gene expression in Chlorella pyrenoidosa under mixotrophic compared with autotrophic conditions. The mean measured exposure concentrations of paraquat under mixotrophic and autotrophic conditions were in the range of 0.3-3.4 and 0.6-3.6 μM, respectively. Exposure to paraquat for 72 h under both autotrophic and mixotrophic conditions induced decreased growth and chlorophyll (Chl) content, increased superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities, and decreased transcript abundances of three photosynthesis-related genes (light-independent protochlorophyllide reductase subunit, photosystem II protein D1, and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase large subunit [rbcL]). Compared with autotrophic conditions, the inhibition percentage of growth rate under mixotrophic conditions was lower at 0.8 μM paraquat, whereas it was greater at 1.8 and 3.4 μM paraquat. With exposure to 0.8-3.4 μM paraquat, the inhibition rates of Chl a and b content under mixotrophic conditions (43.1-52.4% and 54.6-59.7%, respectively) were greater compared with autotrophic conditions, whereas the inhibition rate of rbcL gene transcription under mixotrophic conditions (35.7-44.0%) was lower. These data showed that similar to autotrophic conditions, paraquat affected the activities of antioxidant enzymes and decreased Chl synthesis and transcription of photosynthesis-related genes in C. pyrenoidosa under mixotrophic conditions, but a differential susceptibility to paraquat toxicity occurred between autotrophically versus mixotrophically grown cells.

Suppression of Photosynthetic Gene Expression in Roots Is Required for Sustained Root Growth under Phosphate Deficiency.

Plants cope with inorganic phosphate (Pi) deficiencies in their environment by adjusting their developmental programs and metabolic activities. For Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), the developmental responses include the inhibition of primary root growth and the enhanced formation of lateral roots and root hairs. Pi deficiency also inhibits photosynthesis by suppressing the expression of photosynthetic genes. Early studies showed that photosynthetic gene expression was also suppressed in Pi-deficient roots, a nonphotosynthetic organ; however, the biological relevance of this phenomenon remains unknown. In this work, we characterized an Arabidopsis mutant, hypersensitive to Pi starvation7 (hps7), that is hypersensitive to Pi deficiency; the hypersensitivity includes an increased inhibition of root growth. HPS7 encodes a tyrosylprotein sulfotransferase. Accumulation of HPS7 proteins in root tips is enhanced by Pi deficiency. Comparative RNA sequencing analyses indicated that the expression of many photosynthetic genes is activated in roots of hps7. Under Pi deficiency, the expression of photosynthetic genes in hps7 is further increased, which leads to enhanced accumulation of chlorophyll, starch, and sucrose. Pi-deficient hps7 roots also produce a high level of reactive oxygen species. Previous research showed that the overexpression of GOLDEN-like (GLK) transcription factors in transgenic Arabidopsis activates photosynthesis in roots. The GLK overexpressing (GLK OX) lines also exhibit increased inhibition of root growth under Pi deficiency. The increased inhibition of root growth in hps7 and GLK OX lines by Pi deficiency was completely reversed by growing the plants in the dark. Based on these results, we propose that suppression of photosynthetic gene expression is required for sustained root growth under Pi deficiency.

The functions of WHIRLY1 and REDOX-RESPONSIVE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 1 in cross tolerance responses in plants: a hypothesis

Chloroplasts are important sensors of environment change, fulfilling key roles in the regulation of plant growth and development in relation to environmental cues. Photosynthesis produces a repertoire of reductive and oxidative (redox) signals that provide information to the nucleus facilitating appropriate acclimation to a changing light environment. Redox signals are also recognized by the cellular innate immune system allowing activation of non-specific, stress-responsive pathways that underpin cross tolerance to biotic-abiotic stresses. While these pathways have been intensively studied in recent years, little is known about the different components that mediate chloroplast-to-nucleus signalling and facilitate cross tolerance phenomena. Here, we consider the properties of the WHIRLY family of proteins and the REDOX-RESPONSIVE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 1 (RRTF1) in relation to chloroplast redox signals that facilitate the synergistic co-activation of gene expression pathways and confer cross tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. We propose a new hypothesis for the role of WHIRLY1 as a redox sensor in chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signalling leading to cross tolerance, including acclimation and immunity responses. By virtue of its association with chloroplast nucleoids and with nuclear DNA, WHIRLY1 is an attractive candidate coordinator of the expression of photosynthetic genes in the nucleus and chloroplasts. We propose that the redox state of the photosynthetic electron transport chain triggers the movement of WHIRLY1 from the chloroplasts to the nucleus, and draw parallels with the regulation of NONEXPRESSOR OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 1 (NPR1).

Relationship between Hexokinase and the Aquaporin PIP1 in the Regulation of Photosynthesis and Plant Growth

Increased expression of the aquaporin NtAQP1, which is known to function as a plasmalemma channel for CO2 and water, increases the rate of both photosynthesis and transpiration. In contrast, increased expression of Arabidopsis hexokinase1 (AtHXK1), a dual-function enzyme that mediates sugar sensing, decreases the expression of photosynthetic genes and the rate of transpiration and inhibits growth. Here, we show that AtHXK1 also decreases root and stem hydraulic conductivity and leaf mesophyll CO2 conductance (g m). Due to their opposite effects on plant development and physiology, we examined the relationship between NtAQP1 and AtHXK1 at the whole-plant level using transgenic tomato plants expressing both genes simultaneously. NtAQP1 significantly improved growth and increased the transpiration rates of AtHXK1-expressing plants. Reciprocal grafting experiments indicated that this complementation occurs when both genes are expressed simultaneously in the shoot. Yet, NtAQP1 had only a marginal effect on the hydraulic conductivity of the double-transgenic plants, suggesting that the complementary effect of NtAQP1 is unrelated to shoot water transport. Rather, NtAQP1 significantly increased leaf mesophyll CO2 conductance and enhanced the rate of photosynthesis, suggesting that NtAQP1 facilitated the growth of the double-transgenic plants by enhancing mesophyll conductance of CO2.

De Novo Assembly and Characterization of the Transcriptome of the Parasitic Weed Dodder Identifies Genes Associated with Plant Parasitism

Parasitic flowering plants are one of the most destructive agricultural pests and have major impact on crop yields throughout the world. Being dependent on finding a host plant for growth, parasitic plants penetrate their host using specialized organs called haustoria. Haustoria establish vascular connections with the host, which enable the parasite to steal nutrients and water. The underlying molecular and developmental basis of parasitism by plants is largely unknown. In order to investigate the process of parasitism, RNAs from different stages (i.e. seed, seedling, vegetative strand, prehaustoria, haustoria, and flower) were used to de novo assemble and annotate the transcriptome of the obligate plant stem parasite dodder (Cuscuta pentagona). The assembled transcriptome was used to dissect transcriptional dynamics during dodder development and parasitism and identified key gene categories involved in the process of plant parasitism. Host plant infection is accompanied by increased expression of parasite genes underlying transport and transporter categories, response to stress and stimuli, as well as genes encoding enzymes involved in cell wall modifications. By contrast, expression of photosynthetic genes is decreased in the dodder infective stages compared with normal stem. In addition, genes relating to biosynthesis, transport, and response of phytohormones, such as auxin, gibberellins, and strigolactone, were differentially expressed in the dodder infective stages compared with stems and seedlings. This analysis sheds light on the transcriptional changes that accompany plant parasitism and will aid in identifying potential gene targets for use in controlling the infestation of crops by parasitic weeds.

Aerobic Biofilms Grown from Athabasca Watershed Sediments Are Inhibited by Increasing Concentrations of Bituminous Compounds

Sediments from the Athabasca River and its tributaries naturally contain bitumen at various concentrations, but the impacts of this variation on the ecology of the river are unknown. Here, we used controlled rotating biofilm reactors in which we recirculated diluted sediments containing various concentrations of bituminous compounds taken from the Athabasca River and three tributaries. Biofilms exposed to sediments having low and high concentrations of bituminous compounds were compared. The latter were 29% thinner, had a different extracellular polysaccharide composition, 67% less bacterial biomass per μm2, 68% less cyanobacterial biomass per μm2, 64% less algal biomass per μm2, 13% fewer protozoa per cm2, were 21% less productive, and had a 33% reduced content in chlorophyll a per mm2 and a 20% reduction in the expression of photosynthetic genes, but they had a 23% increase in the expression of aromatic hydrocarbon degradation genes. Within the Bacteria, differences in community composition were also observed, with relatively more Alphaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria and less Cyanobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes in biofilms exposed to high concentrations of bituminous compounds. Altogether, our results suggest that biofilms that develop in the presence of higher concentrations of bituminous compounds are less productive and have lower biomass, linked to a decrease in the activities and abundance of photosynthetic organisms likely due to inhibitory effects. However, within this general inhibition, some specific microbial taxa and functional genes are stimulated because they are less sensitive to the inhibitory effects of bituminous compounds or can degrade and utilize some bitumen-associated compounds.