Phosphorylation Of Sarcomeric Proteins Research Articles

Different phosphorylation states of native titin filaments visualized by atomic force microscopy.

During muscle stretch, elastic or “passive” force develops which is mainly determined by the giant protein titin that forms the third filament system of muscle sarcomeres. The magnitude of this force is mainly dependent on the elasticity of the titin filaments, which is primarily determined by the structure of the polypeptide chain. However, it is suggested that post-translational modifications of titin, such as phosphokinase activity, regulate the sarcomeric passive force development. Mechanical studies on single myofibrils revealed that different protein kinases alter the passive tension of muscle, surprisingly, in opposite ways. This suggests that phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins by various kinases is an essential regulatory mechanism of passive force. However, the extrapolation of these findings to titin's phosphorylation has not been studied so far at the single-molecule level. To reveal titin's structural alterations due to phosphorylation, single-molecule experiments must be carried out on individual titin molecules, where the effect of phosphorylation can be tested individually. In our work, we isolated individual titin molecules from rabbit and mouse skeletal muscle. The isolated native titin molecules showed high levels of phosphorylation, when stained with phosphoprotein gel stain. The isolated molecules were treated with lambda protein phosphatase to decrease the in situ phosphorylation level of the polymer. To investigate the effect of the treatment on titin's structure, we visualized surface-bound titin molecules by atomic force microscope and found that the C-terminal region of dephosphorylated titins collapses into a compact, coiled structure. Our findings suggest that the structure of the A-band region of titin is highly sensitive for phospohrylation which might play a role in controlling protein-titin interactions in the A-band.

Phosphorylation-dependent interactions of myosin-binding protein C and troponin coordinate the myofilament response to protein kinase A

PKA-mediated phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins enhances heart muscle performance in response to β-adrenergic stimulation and is associated with accelerated relaxation and increased cardiac output for a given preload. At the cellular level, the latter translates to a greater dependence of Ca2+ sensitivity and maximum force on sarcomere length (SL), that is, enhanced length-dependent activation. However, the mechanisms by which PKA phosphorylation of the most notable sarcomeric PKA targets, troponin I (cTnI) and myosin-binding protein C (cMyBP-C), lead to these effects remain elusive. Here, we specifically altered the phosphorylation level of cTnI in heart muscle cells and characterized the structural and functional effects at different levels of background phosphorylation of cMyBP-C and with two different SLs. We found Ser22/23 bisphosphorylation of cTnI was indispensable for the enhancement of length-dependent activation by PKA, as was cMyBP-C phosphorylation. This high level of coordination between cTnI and cMyBP-C may suggest coupling between their regulatory mechanisms. Further evidence for this was provided by our finding that cardiac troponin (cTn) can directly interact with cMyBP-C invitro, in a phosphorylation- and Ca2+-dependent manner. In addition, bisphosphorylation at Ser22/Ser23 increased Ca2+ sensitivity at long SL in the presence of endogenously phosphorylated cMyBP-C. When cMyBP-C was dephosphorylated, bisphosphorylation of cTnI increased Ca2+ sensitivity and decreased cooperativity at both SLs, which may translate to deleterious effects in physiological settings. Our results could have clinical relevance for disease pathways, where PKA phosphorylation of cTnI may be functionally uncoupled from cMyBP-C phosphorylation due to mutations or haploinsufficiency.

Abstract P1060: Sarcomeric Protein Phosphorylation Protects Mouse Hearts From Ischemia/reperfusion Injury

Introduction: Post-translational modifications of cardiac troponin I (cTnI), an essential sarcomeric protein, have been known to play a vital role in regulating heart function. Site-specific phosphorylation on cTnI Ser199 is upregulated in human ischemic heart failure, negatively affects diastolic function but preserves ejection fraction in mice in vivo , and promotes contractility recovery after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) in male isolated mouse hearts. However, its cardioprotective mechanism is largely unknown. Hypothesis: We assessed the hypothesis that cTnI Ser199 hyperphosphorylation protects hearts during I/R via down-regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Methods: Due to the current methodology limitation, there is no way to phosphorylate one specific site on cTnI in vivo . We, therefore, generated a transgenic mouse model named TgD that carried Serine (S) to Aspartic Acid (D) mutation at cTnI Ser200 (equivalent to Ser199 in human sequence) to mimic the site-specific hyperphosphorylation, which was a widely accepted method for in vivo studies on sarcomeric protein phosphorylation. The cardiac function was examined using Langendorff isolated hearts with pacing at baseline and after 30-minute global ischemia followed by 2-hour reperfusion. Results: At baseline, TgD hearts (both genders, 7-8 mice/gender, age 3-5 months) showed comparable rate pressure product (RPP), left ventricular developed pressure (LVDevP), and d P /d t max but decreased d P /d t min relative to wildtype (WT) littermates. After I/R, TgD presented significantly better RPP, LVDevP, d P /d t max , and d P /d t min with remarkable contractile function recovery rate compared to WT (i.e., 47% ±2% vs. 24%±2% in RPP, P<0.05) in both genders. The level of total ROS was similar in TgD and WT hearts at baseline. Although the ROS increased after I/R, it remained at a significantly lower level in post-I/R TgD hearts than WT controls, associated with differentially altered activities of antioxidant enzymes. Conclusions: In conclusion, human heart-failure-related cTnI Ser199 hyperphosphorylation protects heart function during global I/R in isolated mouse hearts in both genders . The protective mechanism, at least in part, involves the downregulation of ROS.

The Acute Effects of Leptin on the Contractility of Isolated Rat Atrial and Ventricular Cardiomyocytes.

Leptin is a pleiotropic peptide playing an important role in the regulation of cardiac functions. It is not clear whether leptin directly modulates the mechanical function of atrial cardiomyocytes. We compared the acute effects of leptin on the characteristics of mechanically non-loaded sarcomere shortening and cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) transients in single rat atrial and ventricular cardiomyocytes. We also studied the functional properties of myosin obtained from cardiomyocytes using an in vitro motility assay and assessed the sarcomeric protein phosphorylation. Single cardiomyocytes were exposed to 5, 20, and 60 nM leptin for 60 min. In ventricular cardiomyocytes, 60 nM leptin depressed sarcomere shortening amplitude and decreased the rates of shortening and relaxation. These effects were accompanied by a decrease in the phosphorylation of cMyBP-C, an increase in Tpm phosphorylation, and a slowdown of the sliding velocity of thin filaments over myosin in the in vitro motility assay. In contrast, in atrial cardiomyocytes, the phosphorylation of cMyBP-C and TnI increased, and the characteristics of sarcomere shortening did not change. Leptin had no effect on the characteristics of [Ca2+]i transients in ventricular cardiomyocytes, while 5 nM leptin prolonged [Ca2+]i transients in atrial cardiomyocytes. Thus, leptin-induced changes in contractility of ventricular cardiomyocytes may be attributed to the direct effects of leptin on cross-bridge kinetics and sarcomeric protein properties rather than changes in [Ca2+]i. We also suggest that the observed differences between atrial and ventricular cardiomyocytes may be associated with the peculiarities of the expression of leptin receptors, as well as signaling pathways in the atrial and ventricular myocardium.

Implications of Tropomyosin Phosphorylation in Normal and Cardiomyopathic Hearts

Numerous molecular and biochemical processes regulate protein production in the cell. One of these processes, phosphorylation, allows the cell to rapidly adapt to changing physiological situations. In terminally differentiated cells, such as cardiomyocytes, phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins controls contraction and relaxation under both normal and stressful conditions. The focus of this review is how phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins alters physiological performance in cardiac muscle with a particular emphasis on the thin filament protein tropomyosin. This topic is addressed by the examination of tropomyosin isoform expression and its phosphorylation state from embryonic to adult murine development. Next, studies are examined which utilize in vivo model systems to express phosphorylation mimetics and de-phosphorylation genetically-altered tropomyosin transgene constructs. Results show that tropomyosin isoform expression is highly regulated, along with its phosphorylation state. Transgenic mouse hearts which express high levels of a constitutively phosphorylated tropomyosin develop a severe dilated cardiomyopathy and die within a month. A more moderate expression of this phosphorylation mimetic leads to normal systolic performance, but impaired diastolic function. When tropomyosin is dephosphorylated, the transgenic mice develop a compensated cardiac hypertrophy without systolic or diastolic alterations. Interestingly, when dephosphorylated tropomyosin is co-expressed with a hypertrophic cardiomyopathy tropomyosin mutation, the pathological phenotype is rescued with improved cardiac function and no indices of systolic or diastolic dysfunction. These studies demonstrate the functional significance of tropomyosin phosphorylation in determining cardiac performance during both normal and pathological conditions.

Functional and Molecular Characterisation of Heart Failure Progression in Mice and the Role of Myosin Regulatory Light Chains in the Recovery of Cardiac Muscle Function

Heart failure (HF) as a result of myocardial infarction (MI) is a major cause of fatality worldwide. However, the cause of cardiac dysfunction succeeding MI has not been elucidated at a sarcomeric level. Thus, studying the alterations within the sarcomere is necessary to gain insights on the fundamental mechansims leading to HF and potentially uncover appropriate therapeutic targets. Since existing research portrays regulatory light chains (RLC) to be mediators of cardiac muscle contraction in both human and animal models, its role was further explored In this study, a detailed characterisation of the physiological changes (i.e., isometric force, calcium sensitivity and sarcomeric protein phosphorylation) was assessed in an MI mouse model, between 2D (2 days) and 28D post-MI, and the changes were related to the phosphorylation status of RLCs. MI mouse models were created via complete ligation of left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery. Left ventricular (LV) papillary muscles were isolated and permeabilised for isometric force and Ca2+ sensitivity measurement, while the LV myocardium was used to assay sarcomeric proteins’ (RLC, troponin I (TnI) and myosin binding protein-C (MyBP-C)) phosphorylation levels and enzyme (myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), zipper interacting protein kinase (ZIPK) and myosin phosphatase target subunit 2 (MYPT2)) expression levels. Finally, the potential for improving the contractility of diseased cardiac papillary fibres via the enhancement of RLC phosphorylation levels was investigated by employing RLC exchange methods, in vitro. RLC phosphorylation and isometric force potentiation were enhanced in the compensatory phase and decreased in the decompensatory phase of HF failure progression, respectively. There was no significant time-lag between the changes in RLC phosphorylation and isometric force during HF progression, suggesting that changes in RLC phosphorylation immediately affect force generation. Additionally, the in vitro increase in RLC phosphorylation levels in 14D post-MI muscle segments (decompensatory stage) enhanced its force of isometric contraction, substantiating its potential in HF treatment. Longitudinal observation unveils potential mechanisms involving MyBP-C and key enzymes regulating RLC phosphorylation, such as MLCK and MYPT2 (subunit of MLCP), during HF progression. This study primarily demonstrates that RLC phosphorylation is a key sarcomeric protein modification modulating cardiac function. This substantiates the possibility of using RLCs and their associated enzymes to treat HF.

Myofilament Phosphorylation in Stem Cell Treated Diastolic Heart Failure

Phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins has been implicated in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF); such changes may contribute to diastolic dysfunction by altering contractility, cardiac stiffness, Ca2+-sensitivity, and mechanosensing. Treatment with cardiosphere-derived cells (CDCs) restores normal diastolic function, attenuates fibrosis and inflammation, and improves survival in a rat HFpEF model. Phosphorylation changes that underlie HFpEF and those reversed by CDC therapy, with a focus on the sarcomeric subproteome were analyzed. Dahl salt-sensitive rats fed a high-salt diet, with echocardiographically verified diastolic dysfunction, were randomly assigned to either intracoronary CDCs or placebo. Dahl salt-sensitive rats receiving low salt diet served as controls. Protein and phosphorylated Ser, Thr, and Tyr residues from left ventricular tissue were quantified by mass spectrometry. HFpEF hearts exhibited extensive hyperphosphorylation with 98% of the 529 significantly changed phospho-sites increased compared with control. Of those, 39% were located within the sarcomeric subproteome, with a large group of proteins located or associated with the Z-disk. CDC treatment partially reverted the hyperphosphorylation, with 85% of the significantly altered 76 residues hypophosphorylated. Bioinformatic upstream analysis of the differentially phosphorylated protein residues revealed PKC as the dominant putative regulatory kinase. PKC isoform analysis indicated increases in PKC α, β, and δ concentration, whereas CDC treatment led to a reversion of PKCβ. Use of PKC isoform specific inhibition and overexpression of various PKC isoforms strongly suggests that PKCβ is the dominant kinase involved in hyperphosphorylation in HFpEF and is altered with CDC treatment. Increased protein phosphorylation at the Z-disk is associated with diastolic dysfunction, with PKC isoforms driving most quantified phosphorylation changes. Because CDCs reverse the key abnormalities in HFpEF and selectively reverse PKCβ upregulation, PKCβ merits being classified as a potential therapeutic target in HFpEF, a disease notoriously refractory to medical intervention.

Constitutive protein kinase G activation exacerbates stress-induced cardiomyopathy.

Heart failure is associated with high morbidity and mortality, and new therapeutic targets are needed. Preclinical data suggest that pharmacological activation of protein kinase G (PKG) can reduce maladaptive ventricular remodelling and cardiac dysfunction in the stressed heart. However, clinical trial results have been mixed and the effects of long-term PKG activation in the heart are unknown. We characterized the cardiac phenotype of mice carrying a heterozygous knock-in mutation of PKG1 (Prkg1R177Q/+ ), which causes constitutive, cGMP-independent activation of the kinase. We examined isolated cardiac myocytes and intact mice, the latter after stress induced by surgical transaortic constriction or angiotensin II (Ang II) infusion. Cardiac myocytes from Prkg1R177Q/+ mice showed altered phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins and reduced contractility in response to electrical stimulation, compared to cells from wild type mice. Under basal conditions, young PKG1R177Q/+ mice exhibited no obvious cardiac abnormalities, but aging animals developed mild increases in cardiac fibrosis. In response to angiotensin II infusion or fixed pressure overload induced by transaortic constriction, young PKGR177Q/+ mice exhibited excessive hypertrophic remodelling with increased fibrosis and myocyte apoptosis, leading to increased left ventricular dilation and dysfunction compared to wild type litter mates. Long-term PKG1 activation in mice may be harmful to the heart, especially in the presence of pressure overload and neurohumoral stress. This article is part of a themed issue on cGMP Signalling in Cell Growth and Survival. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v179.11/issuetoc.

Cardiomyopathic mutations in essential light chain reveal mechanisms regulating the super relaxed state of myosin.

In this study, we assessed the super relaxed (SRX) state of myosin and sarcomeric protein phosphorylation in two pathological models of cardiomyopathy and in a near-physiological model of cardiac hypertrophy. The cardiomyopathy models differ in disease progression and severity and express the hypertrophic (HCM-A57G) or restrictive (RCM-E143K) mutations in the human ventricular myosin essential light chain (ELC), which is encoded by the MYL3 gene. Their effects were compared with near-physiological heart remodeling, represented by the N-terminally truncated ELC (Δ43 ELC mice), and with nonmutated human ventricular WT-ELC mice. The HCM-A57G and RCM-E143K mutations had antagonistic effects on the ATP-dependent myosin energetic states, with HCM-A57G cross-bridges fostering the disordered relaxed (DRX) state and the RCM-E143K model favoring the energy-conserving SRX state. The HCM-A57G model promoted the switch from the SRX to DRX state and showed an ∼40% increase in myosin regulatory light chain (RLC) phosphorylation compared with the RLC of normal WT-ELC myocardium. On the contrary, the RCM-E143K-associated stabilization of the SRX state was accompanied by an approximately twofold lower level of myosin RLC phosphorylation compared with the RLC of WT-ELC. Upregulation of RLC phosphorylation was also observed in Δ43 versus WT-ELC hearts, and the Δ43 myosin favored the energy-saving SRX conformation. The two disease variants also differently affected the duration of force transients, with shorter (HCM-A57G) or longer (RCM-E143K) transients measured in electrically stimulated papillary muscles from these pathological models, while no changes were displayed by Δ43 fibers. We propose that the N terminus of ELC (N-ELC), which is missing in the hearts of Δ43 mice, works as an energetic switch promoting the SRX-to-DRX transition and contributing to the regulation of myosin RLC phosphorylation in full-length ELC mice by facilitating or sterically blocking RLC phosphorylation in HCM-A57G and RCM-E143K hearts, respectively.

Increased myocyte calcium sensitivity in end-stage pediatric dilated cardiomyopathy.

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is the most common cause of heart failure (HF) in children, resulting in high mortality and need for heart transplantation. The pathophysiology underlying pediatric DCM is largely unclear; however, there is emerging evidence that molecular adaptations and response to conventional HF medications differ between children and adults. To gain insight into alterations leading to systolic dysfunction in pediatric DCM, we measured cardiomyocyte contractile properties and sarcomeric protein phosphorylation in explanted pediatric DCM myocardium (N = 8 subjects) compared with nonfailing (NF) pediatric hearts (N = 8 subjects). Force-pCa curves were generated from skinned cardiomyocytes in the presence and absence of protein kinase A. Sarcomeric protein phosphorylation was quantified with Pro-Q Diamond staining after gel electrophoresis. Pediatric DCM cardiomyocytes demonstrate increased calcium sensitivity (pCa50 =5.70 ± 0.0291), with an associated decrease in troponin (Tn)I phosphorylation compared with NF pediatric cardiomyocytes (pCa50 =5.59 ± 0.0271, P = 0.0073). Myosin binding protein C and TnT phosphorylation are also lower in pediatric DCM, whereas desmin phosphorylation is increased. Pediatric DCM cardiomyocytes generate peak tension comparable to that of NF pediatric cardiomyocytes [DCM 29.7 mN/mm2, interquartile range (IQR) 21.5-49.2 vs. NF 32.8 mN/mm2, IQR 21.5-49.2 mN/mm2; P = 0.6125]. In addition, cooperativity is decreased in pediatric DCM compared with pediatric NF (Hill coefficient: DCM 1.56, IQR 1.31-1.94 vs. NF 1.94, IQR 1.36-2.86; P = 0.0425). Alterations in sarcomeric phosphorylation and cardiomyocyte contractile properties may represent an impaired compensatory response, contributing to the detrimental DCM phenotype in children.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our study is the first to demonstrate that cardiomyocytes from infants and young children with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) exhibit increased calcium sensitivity (likely mediated by decreased troponin I phosphorylation) compared with nonfailing pediatric cardiomyocytes. Compared with published values in adult cardiomyocytes, pediatric cardiomyocytes have notably decreased cooperativity, with a further reduction in the setting of DCM. Distinct adaptations in cardiomyocyte contractile properties may contribute to a differential response to pharmacological therapies in the pediatric DCM population.

Abstract 622: Load-Independent Systolic Dysfunction and Altered Z-Disc Protein Phosphorylation in Swine with Stretch-Induced Myocardial Stunning

Objective: We recently demonstrated that a transient rise in left ventricular (LV) preload leads to a reversible reduction in LV ejection fraction in the absence of ischemia (“stretch-induced stunning”). The present study was designed to determine whether this phenomenon is characterized by impaired load independent LV systolic function and alterations in sarcomeric protein phosphorylation. Methods: Swine (n=9) received a 1 hour infusion of phenylephrine (PE; 18 mg/hour iv) to transiently elevate LV end-diastolic pressure (EDP). Load independent systolic function was derived from LV pressure volume loops collected during inferior vena cava occlusion at baseline and 30 min after PE (Transonic SciSense). In a subset of animals (n=5), LV tissue was collected 1 hour after PE for TMT-labeled, LC-MS-based quantitative phosphoproteomics using Orbitrap. Results: PE elicited a rise in LV EDP (9±2 to 29±3 mmHg, p<0.01), followed by a reduction in LV ejection fraction and LV dP/dt max 30 min later. At this time, load independent indices of LV systolic function tended to exhibit a reduced slope with a significant rightward shift of the volume-axis intercept (V 0 ), indicative of decreased contractility ( Table ). This was accompanied by altered phosphorylation of 16 sarcomeric Z disc proteins at 27 phosphosites, including increased phosphorylation of α actinin, α crystallin B chain, desmin, and myotilin. Conclusions: Stretch-induced stunning following transient preload elevation is characterized by load independent systolic dysfunction. Phosphoproteomics implicate alterations in Z disc protein phosphorylation as a mechanism underlying contractile dysfunction in this condition.

Nitrate increases in skeletal muscle peak power do not involve changes in sarcomeric protein phosphorylation and require whole‐body physiological pathways

Acute dietary nitrate supplementation in humans (within 2 hours) increases limb muscle peak power. In old mice, chronic (14 days) dietary nitrate supplementation increases diaphragm peak power. However, mechanisms of dietary nitrate effects on contractile mechanics are not fully understood. It is unclear whether nitrate ions directly or products downstream of the nitrate‐nitrite‐nitric oxide (NO) reductive pathway are responsible for changes in muscle contractile function. Increases in power likely involve post‐translational modification of myofibrillar proteins – phosphorylation being an established effect of NO signaling. We determined the phosphorylation status of myofibrillar proteins from diaphragms of 24 month old mice supplemented with nitrate (n = 8) or control (n = 6) and found no difference for myosin regulatory light chain, myosin binding protein c, tropomyosin, desmin or troponin I. Regulatory light chain phosphorylation signal normalized to total protein was 1.696 ± 0.139 and 1.699 ± 0.105 for control and nitrate‐supplemented animals, respectively. To examine a direct effect of nitrate on muscle cells, we exposed isolated diaphragm bundles from young mice in vitro to increasing concentrations of NaNO3. In vitro NaNO3 (15 min) had no effect on diaphragm peak power or isometric force (P > 0.05). Specifically, power (% control) was −1.06 ± 0.20 (0.5 mM), −1.73 ± 0.79 (1 mM), −2.64 ± 2.14 (2 mM), and −2.40 ± 2.40 (4 mM). Overall, our study shows that the increase in diaphragm power of aged mice elicited by chronic dietary nitrate supplementation does not involve changes in phosphorylation of key sarcomeric proteins that regulate contractile function. Moreover, our data from in vitro experiments suggest no direct effect of nitrate ions on mammalian skeletal muscle contractile function. Instead, dietary nitrate effects on muscle function appear to require whole‐body physiological mechanisms and actions of molecules downstream of nitrate.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Beta-Myosin Heavy Chain Post-Translational Modifications in Failing and Non-Failing Human Hearts

Very little is known about post-translational modifications (PTM) of myosin heavy chain (MHC) in the human heart. Protein acetylation is a PTM, shown of instrumental importance as a modification of histone proteins. More recently it has been uncovered that the realm of lysine-acetylation extends beyond the nucleus. Protein phosphorylation is a well-known PTM found on several sarcomeric proteins in the heart and is crucial for fine-tuning myocardial contractility. To our knowledge, we were first to report alpha-MHC phosphorylation in murine hearts. Given the emergent importance of the broader lysine-acetylome and sarcomeric protein phosphorylation during heart failure, we examined PTMs in human heart beta-MHC. Here, using bottom-up proteomics, we identified six high-confidence lysine acetylation sites (three each in myosin-S1 and rod domains) and eight high-confidence phosphorylation sites (six in myosin-S1 and two in myosin rod regions). Furthermore, the acetylation and phosphorylation status of some of these sites changed in ischemic failing (IF) and non-ischemic failing (NIF) hearts compared to donor non-failing human hearts. Using label-free quantification, we found reduced acetylation of four lysine residues in IF and NIF human hearts. However, in IF human hearts differential acetylation was apparent, with two lysine residues in myosin-S1 exhibiting enhanced acetylation. Analysis of the phosphorylation sites is currently in progress. Additionally, we identified a region in the myosin-S1 ATP-binding pocket that exhibits both acetylated and phosphorylated residues, suggesting the importance of specific changes in the amino acid architecture in this region. It will be of interest to determine: (i) the functional role of these PTM sites; and (ii) whether altered acetylation of beta-MHC aberrantly effects human heart function and in turn contributes to impaired function and the progression to heart failure of both ischemic and non-ischemic origins.

Aberrant Cardiac Muscle Mechanics in a Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Troponin T ILE79ASN Transgenic Mouse

The missense mutation Ile79Asn in human cardiac troponin T (HcTnT-I79N) has been associated with phenotypic outcomes of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. Previous characterization of an HcTnT-I79N transgenic mouse, which expresses 52% of the mutant protein, demonstrated increased Ca2+-sensitivity of isometric force. Little else is known about any changes in cardiac muscle mechanics caused by the mutation. This study investigates cross-bridge kinetics of skinned papillary muscle bundles (isometric force, sinusoidal stiffness and rate of tension redevelopment, kTR), post-translational modifications (PTM) in sarcomeric proteins, and in vivo cardiac function. For fiber mechanics and PTM analysis, cardiac muscle was isolated from the left ventricle of non-transgenic wild-type (WT) mice or transgenic mice bearing the HcTnT-I79N mutation. Sarcomere length (SL) was set at pCa8 using HeNe laser diffraction after the attachment points of each skinned fiber bundle were fixed with glutaraldehyde to minimize end compliance. Sinusoidal stiffness (0.2% PTP length oscillation) and kTR were obtained after recording steady-state isometric tension. As previously reported, the HcTnT-I79N mutation led to increased Ca2+-sensitivity of isometric force. Length-dependent activation at the longer SL (2.1 vs 1.9 µm) resulted in increased Ca2+-sensitivity of isometric force and sinusoidal stiffness and slower kTR for both WT and HcTnT-I79N. However, HcTnT-I79N exhibited slightly faster kTR and greater sinusoidal stiffness at sub-maximum Ca2+-activation (∼40% of maximal isometric force) compared to WT regardless of SL. These data indicate that the HCM HcTnT-I79N mutation, and SL, markedly influence the dynamics of individual regulatory units as well as the kinetics of cross-bridge cycling. Next steps include echocardiographic, sarcomeric protein phosphorylation and further fiber mechanic analyses. NIH-HL128683.

Contribution of Post-translational Phosphorylation to Sarcomere-Linked Cardiomyopathy Phenotypes.

Secondary shifts develop in post-translational phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins in multiple animal models of inherited cardiomyopathy. These signaling alterations together with the primary mutation are predicted to contribute to the overall cardiac phenotype. As a result, identification and integration of post-translational myofilament signaling responses are identified as priorities for gaining insights into sarcomeric cardiomyopathies. However, significant questions remain about the nature and contribution of post-translational phosphorylation to structural remodeling and cardiac dysfunction in animal models and human patients. This perspective essay discusses specific goals for filling critical gaps about post-translational signaling in response to these inherited mutations, especially within sarcomeric proteins. The discussion focuses primarily on pre-clinical analysis of animal models and defines challenges and future directions in this field.

Omecamtiv Mecarbil, a Cardiac Myosin Activator, Increases Ca2+ Sensitivity in Myofilaments With a Dilated Cardiomyopathy Mutant Tropomyosin E54K.

Apart from transplant, there are no satisfactory therapies for the severe depression in contractility in familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Current heart failure treatments that act by increasing contractility involve signaling cascades that alter calcium homeostasis and induce arrhythmias. Omecamtiv mecarbil is a promising new inotropic agent developed for heart failure that may circumvent such limitations. Omecamtiv is a direct cardiac myosin activator that promotes and prolongs the strong myosin-actin binding conformation to increase the duration of systolic elastance. We tested the effect of omecamtiv on Ca(2+) sensitivity of myofilaments of a DCM mouse model containing a tropomyosin E54K mutation. We compared tension and ATPase activity of detergent-extracted myofilaments with and without treatment with 316 nM omecamtiv at varying pCa values. When transgenic myofilaments were treated with omecamtiv, the pCa50 for activation of tension increased from 5.70 ± 0.02 to 5.82 ± 0.02 and ATPase activity increased from 5.73 ± 0.06 to 6.07 ± 0.04. This significant leftward shift restored Ca(2+) sensitivity to levels no longer significantly different from controls. Proteomic studies lacked changes in sarcomeric protein phosphorylation. Our data demonstrate that omecamtiv can potentially augment cardiac contractility in DCM by increasing Ca(2+) sensitivity. The use of direct myosin activators addresses functional defects without incurring the adverse side effects of Ca(2+)-dependent treatments.

Cardiac myosin light chain phosphorylation and inotropic effects of a biased ligand, TRV120023, in a dilated cardiomyopathy model

Therapeutic approaches to treat familial dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), which is characterized by depressed sarcomeric tension and susceptibility to Ca(2+)-related arrhythmias, have been generally unsuccessful. Our objective in the present work was to determine the effect of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) biased ligand, TRV120023, on contractility of hearts of a transgenic mouse model of familial DCM with mutation in tropomyosin at position 54 (TG-E54K). Our rationale is based on previous studies, which have supported the hypothesis that biased G-protein-coupled receptor ligands, signalling via β-arrestin, increase cardiac contractility with no effect on Ca(2+) transients. Our previous work demonstrated that the biased ligand TRV120023 is able to block angiotensin-induced hypertrophy, while promoting an increase in sarcomere Ca(2+) response. We tested the hypothesis that the depression in cardiac function associated with DCM can be offset by infusion of the AT1R biased ligand, TRV120023. We intravenously infused saline, TRV120023, or the unbiased ligand, losartan, for 15 min in TG-E54K and non-transgenic mice to obtain left ventricular pressure-volume relations. Hearts were analysed for sarcomeric protein phosphorylation. Results showed that the AT1R biased ligand increases cardiac performance in TG-E54K mice in association with increased myosin light chain-2 phosphorylation. Treatment of mice with an AT1R biased ligand, acting via β-arrestin signalling, is able to induce an increase in cardiac contractility associated with an increase in ventricular myosin light chain-2 phosphorylation. AT1R biased ligands may prove to be a novel inotropic approach in familial DCM.

LKB1/Mo25/STRAD Uniquely Impacts Sarcomeric Contractile Function and Posttranslational Modification

The myocardium undergoes extensive metabolic and energetic remodeling during the progression of cardiac disease. Central to remodeling are changes in the adenine nucleotide pool. Fluctuations in these pools can activate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), the central regulator of cellular energetics. Binding of AMP to AMPK not only allosterically activates AMPK but also promotes phosphorylation of AMPK by an upstream kinase complex, LKB1/Mo25/STRAD (liver kinase B 1, mouse protein 25, STE-related adaptor protein). AMPK phosphorylation by the LKB1 complex results in a substantial increase in AMPK activity. Molecular targeting by the LKB1 complex depends on subcellular localization and transcriptional expression. Yet, little is known about the ability of the LKB1 complex to modulate targeting of AMPK after activation. Accordingly, we hypothesized that differing stoichiometric ratios of LKB1 activator complex to AMPK would uniquely impact myofilament function. Demembranated rat cardiac trabeculae were incubated with varying ratios of the LKB1 complex to AMPK or the LKB1 complex alone. After incubation, we measured the Ca2+ sensitivity of tension, rate constant for tension redevelopment, maximum tension generation, length-dependent activation, cooperativity, and sarcomeric protein phosphorylation status. We found that the Ca2+ sensitivity of tension and cross-bridge dynamics were dependent on the LKB1 complex/AMPK ratio. We also found that the LKB1 complex desensitizes and suppresses myofilament function independently of AMPK. A phospho-proteomic analysis of myofilament proteins revealed site-specific changes in cardiac Troponin I (cTnI) phosphorylation, as well as a unique distribution of cTnI phosphospecies that were dependent on the LKB1 complex/ AMPK ratio. Fibers treated with the LKB1 complex alone did not alter cTnI phosphorylation or phosphospecies distribution. However, LKB1 complex treatment independent of AMPK increased phosphorylation of myosin-binding protein C. Therefore, we conclude that the LKB1/AMPK signaling axis is able to alter muscle function through multiple mechanisms.

Cypher/ZASP Is a Novel A-kinase Anchoring Protein

PKA signaling is important for the post-translational modification of proteins, especially those in cardiomyocytes involved in cardiac excitation-contraction coupling. PKA activity is spatially and temporally regulated through compartmentalization by protein kinase A anchoring proteins. Cypher/ZASP, a member of PDZ-LIM domain protein family, is a cytoskeletal protein that forms multiprotein complexes at sarcomeric Z-lines. It has been demonstrated that Cypher/ZASP plays a pivotal structural role in the structural integrity of sarcomeres, and several of its mutations are associated with myopathies including dilated cardiomyopathy. Here we show that Cypher/ZASP, interacting specifically with the type II regulatory subunit RIIα of PKA, acted as a typical protein kinase A anchoring protein in cardiomyocytes. In addition, we show that Cypher/ZASP itself was phosphorylated at Ser(265) and Ser(296) by PKA. Furthermore, the PDZ domain of Cypher/ZASP interacted with the L-type calcium channel through its C-terminal PDZ binding motif. Expression of Cypher/ZASP facilitated PKA-mediated phosphorylation of the L-type calcium channel in vitro. Additionally, the phosphorylation of the L-type calcium channel at Ser(1928) induced by isoproterenol was impaired in neonatal Cypher/ZASP-null cardiomyocytes. Moreover, Cypher/ZASP interacted with the Ser/Thr phosphatase calcineurin, which is a phosphatase for the L-type calcium channel. Taken together, our data strongly suggest that Cypher/ZASP not only plays a structural role for the sarcomeric integrity, but is also an important sarcomeric signaling scaffold in regulating the phosphorylation of channels or contractile proteins.

Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Functional effects of myosin mutation R723G in cardiomyocytes

Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (FHC) is frequently caused by mutations in the β-cardiac myosin heavy chain (β-MyHC). To identify changes in sarcomeric function triggered by such mutations, distinguishing mutation effects from other functional alterations of the myocardium is essential. We previously identified a direct effect of mutation R723G (MyHC723) on myosin function in slow Musculus soleus fibers. Here we investigate contractile features of left ventricular cardiomyocytes of FHC-patients with the same MyHC723-mutation and compare these to the soleus data.In mechanically isolated, triton-permeabilized MyHC723-cardiomyocytes, maximum force was significantly lower but calcium-sensitivity was unchanged compared to donor. Conversely, MyHC723-soleus fibers showed significantly higher maximum force and reduced calcium-sensitivity compared to controls. Protein phosphorylation, a potential myocardium specific modifying mechanism, might account for differences compared to soleus fibers. Analysis revealed reduced phosphorylation of troponin I and T, myosin-binding-protein C, and myosin-light-chain 2 in MyHC723-myocardium compared to donor. Saturation of protein-kinaseA phospho-sites led to comparable, i.e., reduced MyHC723-calcium-sensitivity in cardiomyocytes as in M. soleus fibers, while maximum force remained reduced. Myofibrillar disarray and lower density of myofibrils, however, largely account for reduced maximum force in MyHC723-cardiomyocytes.The changes seen when phosphorylation of sarcomeric proteins in myocardium of affected patients is matched to control tissue suggest that the R723G mutation causes reduced Ca++-sensitivity in both cardiomyocytes and M. soleus fibers. In MyHC723-myocardium, however, hypophosphorylation can compensate for the reduced calcium-sensitivity, while maximum force generation, lowered by myofibrillar deficiency and disarray, remains impaired, and may only be compensated by hypertrophy.