Phonological Short-term Memory Research Articles

Non-native speech perception and the role of phonological memory: A re-examination

Previous laboratory-based research has found phonological memory to significantly affect the perception of non-native speech sounds (Inceoglu, 2019). The present study aims to bolster findings reported in Inceoglu (2019) and provide support for the efficacy of online research by replicating the study’s laboratory-based research in an online setting. Data were collected from 32 native English-speaking learners of French (12 male, 20 female; mean age: 33 years old) online using the Prolific data collection platform (www.prolific.com). The study consisted of two major components: an L2 French nasal vowel identification task (Inceoglu, 2019) and a nonword repetition task designed to assess phonological memory (Anderson, 2012; Grey et al., 2015; Inceoglu, 2019; Kissling, 2014). Results of a simple linear regression revealed that participants with higher scores on the nonword repetition task (indicative of better phonological short-term memory) were significantly likely to perform more target-like on the nasal vowel identification task than those with lower scores (t = 12.57; p < 0.001). These findings not only replicate the original results outlined in Inceoglu (2019), but they also support the efficacy of online research. The latter finding is crucial as research begins to adjust to accommodate a more socially distanced world.

The role of phonological short-term memory in second language phonology

Abstract This study reports on the production of the five Spanish vowels in stressed and unstressed contexts by English-speaking advanced learners of Spanish at two experience levels who differed according to phonological short-term memory (PSTM) capacity. Our findings indicate that learners with higher PSTM capacity were less likely to reduce both stressed and unstressed vowels in Spanish. Consequently, learners with higher PSTM in fourth-year Spanish courses produced vowels that were more native-like than lower PSTM fourth-year learners. On the other hand, higher PSTM graduate students of Spanish produced a Spanish vowel space that was more expanded than that of native Spanish, particularly for /u/, compared to lower PSTM graduate learners, who were more native-like. These findings suggest that PSTM does play a role in second language phonology, even at advanced levels, and may help to explain why individual differences in pronunciation exist even at very high levels of second language proficiency.

Integrity of input verbal short-term memory ability predicts naming accuracy in aphasia

ABSTRACT Background Contemporary models of aphasia predominantly attribute lexical retrieval deficits to impaired access and/or maintenance of semantic, lexical, and phonological representations of words. A central hypothesis of language-emergent models of verbal short-term memory (STM) is that temporary storage and maintenance of verbal information arises from activation of linguistic representations in long-term memory. This close relationship between short-term retention and linguistic representations has prompted accounts of aphasia that include impairments to both these components. Aims We investigated associations between measures of input semantic and phonological verbal STM and corresponding output processing measures. We hypothesised that both input and output functions of verbal STM rely on a common substrate (i.e., temporary activation and maintenance of long-term linguistic representations). Methods & Procedure Twenty adults with aphasia completed a series of semantic and phonological probe spans. Results were compared with naming performance in immediate and delayed conditions. The data were analysed using correlations, principal components analysis and linear regressions. Results & Discussion Input semantic and phonological verbal STM abilities were predictive of naming accuracy. Greater input semantic and phonological STM spans were associated with fewer semantic and phonological naming errors. Latent factors identified by principal components analysis of probe span data were consistent with a two-step interactive model of word retrieval. Probe spans measuring access to semantic and initial consonant-vowel representations aligned with lexical-semantic abilities (lexical-semantic factor). Probe spans assessing access to the rhyme component of a word measured lexical-phonological abilities (lexical-phonological factor). The principal components analysis indicated that stronger lexical-semantic abilities were associated with fewer semantic and nonword errors, and stronger lexical phonological abilities were associated with fewer formal and unrelated errors. In addition, our results were consistent with models that postulate serial access to phonology, proceeding from initial to final phonemes. The span measuring access to initial consonant-vowel was associated with lexical selection, while the span measuring access to rhyme information was associated with phonological selection. Conclusion Performance on input semantic and phonological tasks predicts accuracy of picture naming performance and types of errors made by people with aphasia. These results indicate overlap in input and output semantic and phonological processing, which must be accounted for in models of lexical processing. These findings also have implications for approaches to diagnosis and treatments for lexical comprehension and production that capitalise on the overlap of input and output processing.

Cognitive predictors of language abilities in primary school children: A cascaded developmental view.

This study investigated the longitudinal relationship between children's domain-general cognitive constraints underlying phonological and sentence processing development in a big sample of typically developing children. 104 children were tested on non-linguistic processing speed, phonological skills (phonological short term memory, phonological knowledge, phonological working memory), and sentence processing abilities (sentence repetition and receptive grammar) in 1st grade (aged 6 to 6.5) and one year later. A cross-lagged structural equation model showed that non-linguistic processing speed was a concurrent predictor of phonological skills, and that phonology had a powerful effect on the child's sentence processing abilities concurrently and longitudinally, providing clear evidence for the role of domain-general processes in the developmental pathway of language. These findings support a cascaded cognitive view of language development and pose important challenges for evaluation and intervention strategies in childhood.

Spelling performance of 6- and 8-year-old Irish children; Is it or ?

The association of phonological and lexical-semantic processes with spelling ability in children has received scant research interest even though uncovering such associations can increase our understanding of literacy development. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 42 6- and 8t-year-old children in the southeast of Ireland. The children took part in tasks assessing reading, letter-sound knowledge, phonological ability, phonological short-term memory, and rapid automatized naming. They also completed an assessment of spelling ability involving regular words, irregular words, and pseudowords. Analyses revealed that, for both age groups, and for all three word types, spelling accuracy was strongly associated with phonological ability scores. In contrast, phonological short-term memory was found to be significantly associated with regular word and total word spelling for the younger group. For the older group, rapid automatized naming was associated with all word categories. Qualitative analysis of the spelling errors revealed that an increase in spelling ability was accompanied by greater prevalence of phonologically appropriate errors. Our findings have important implications for teaching and assessment practices for spelling.

Cross-language interactions during novel word learning: The contribution of form similarity and participant characteristics

AbstractThe study examined whether false-cognates, overlapping in form but not meaning across languages, are easier to learn due to form overlap, or more difficult to learn due to meaning competition, compared to unambiguous control and cognate words. Fifty-four native Hebrew speakers learned 14 cognates, 14 false-cognates, and 28 control Arabic words in one session. Cognates were learned better than control items. There was no overall difference in learning false-cognates relative to controls, but individuals with higher phonological short-term memory, or with lower L1 verbal fluency, did exhibit a false-cognate learning-advantage. For these individuals, form overlap was more influential than meaning competition. Lexical decisions to Hebrew words following Arabic learning were slower for false-cognates than controls, indicative of backward influences. The findings reveal the influence of prior knowledge on learning and processing, and highlight the importance of jointly considering item-based and learner-based characteristics during the initial stages of vocabulary learning.

Phonological Short-Term Memory: When Bilingualism Matters

ABSTRACT Non-word repetition tasks are widely used to assess phonological short-term memory (PSTM). Results of previous research on the performance of monolingual and bilingual children in PSTM tasks are inconclusive. Although in some studies bilinguals did outperform monolinguals in the repetition of non-words, most studies reported comparatively weak results of bilingual children, especially when they were tested in their L2. In this study, four-year-old monolingual and bilingual children acquiring German (N = 1,441) were tested with both German-based (GBNW) and quasi-universal non-words (QUNW). It was hypothesized that bilinguals would outperform monolinguals both in (a) GBNW under the condition of comparable German language skills and (b) QUNW without any preconditions because QUNW do not presuppose a good command of German. Bilinguals yielded significantly lower results in GBNW, but not in QUNW. After the exclusion of children with limited German language skills from both groups, bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in both tasks, especially in QUNW. It can be assumed that bilingualism puts higher demands on PSTM than monolingualism and thus contributes to its faster development. Unnecessary medical examinations and therapies that are sometimes prescribed to bilinguals due to a poor performance in German-based PSTM tasks can be avoided if QUNW are used instead of language-specific items.

Effects of Phonological Short-Term Memory on the Sound Reproduction Skills of Japanese Students of English as a Foreign Language

Effects of Phonological Short-Term Memory on the Sound Reproduction Skills of Japanese Students of English as a Foreign Language

Crossed Aphasia after Intracranial Hematoma in the Right Temporoparietal Lobe: A Case Report

Purpose: Aphasia in a dextral after right hemisphere injury is called crossed aphasia (CA). We are reporting a first case of transformation of motor aphasia to conduction aphasia after right hemisphere intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) associated with arteriovenous malformation (AVM) with literature reviews.Methods: A case of a man in his 30s with CA following right hemisphere ICH in the temporal-parietal lobe associated with AVM was reviewed. We analyzed his brain images, initial linguistic characteristics, and changes in aphasia for 8 weeks of follow-up.Results: The initial Paradise Korean Western Aphasia Battery Revised (PK-WAB-R) was evaluated as aphasia quotient (AQ) 72, 64%ile; post evaluation was evaluated AQ 95, 98.9%ile after 8 weeks. The post-test repetition score was the patient score range, which can be attributed to impairment in phonological short-term memory. The patient is diagnosed anomalous CA based on Alexander et al., and we could predict that the language ability originates from both hemispheres based on Nagaraja et al. Considering the appearance of Gerstmann syndrome at the beginning of the onset, we could expect that the function of the dominant parietal lobe is partially crossed as well.Conclusion: Changes in aphasia were reported throughout the initial stage to the end of speech therapy. It is also important to note that literature review of Korean studies was analyzed in this study. It will be necessary to conduct a cognitive test in the early stage of onset to understand the language problems of crossed conduction aphasia to know the characteristics of the cognitive process.

The interaction of working memory capacity and engagement with recasts on different L2 outcome measures: A replication of Révész (2012)

AbstractWe report on a conceptual replication of Révész (2012) in order to investigate the idea whether learners provided with recasts do engage in different kinds of behavioral engagement as a function of their working memory and if/how this engagement comes to bear on performance on different measures. Engagement with recasts was measured through a coding method categorizing responses to the recasts running the gamut from: (1) no opportunity, (2) opportunity, but did not repeat, (3) repeated the recasted form, (4) negotiated the response, to (5) used the recasted form later in the discourse. Consistent with Révész (2012), though with lower effect sizes, the results showed that recasts were most conducive to gains on an oral task and less so on a written description task, but non-effective on a grammaticality judgment task. Furthermore, it was revealed that learners with a high phonological short-term memory were more prone to recast-induced engagement on an oral production task, whereas those enjoying a higher reading span were considerably less so. We propose that learner engagement be deemed more important in future interaction research.

Dissociating the functions of three left posterior superior temporal regions that contribute to speech perception and production

Prior studies have shown that the left posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) and left temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) both contribute to phonological short-term memory, speech perception and speech production. Here, by conducting a within-subjects multi-factorial fMRI study, we dissociate the response profiles of these regions and a third region – the anterior ascending terminal branch of the left superior temporal sulcus (atSTS), which lies dorsal to pSTS and ventral to TPJ. First, we show that each region was more activated by (i) 1-back matching on visually presented verbal stimuli (words or pseudowords) compared to 1-back matching on visually presented non-verbal stimuli (pictures of objects or non-objects), and (ii) overt speech production than 1-back matching, across 8 types of stimuli (visually presented words, pseudowords, objects and non-objects and aurally presented words, pseudowords, object sounds and meaningless hums). The response properties of the three regions dissociated within the auditory modality. In left TPJ, activation was higher for auditory stimuli that were non-verbal (sounds of objects or meaningless hums) compared to verbal (words and pseudowords), irrespective of task (speech production or 1-back matching). In left pSTS, activation was higher for non-semantic stimuli (pseudowords and hums) than semantic stimuli (words and object sounds) on the dorsal pSTS surface (dpSTS), irrespective of task. In left atSTS, activation was not sensitive to either semantic or verbal content. The contrasting response properties of left TPJ, dpSTS and atSTS was cross-validated in an independent sample of 59 participants, using region-by-condition interactions. We also show that each region participates in non-overlapping networks of frontal, parietal and cerebellar regions. Our results challenge previous claims about functional specialisation in the left posterior superior temporal lobe and motivate future studies to determine the timing and directionality of information flow in the brain networks involved in speech perception and production.

The associations between working memory and the effects of multimedia input on L2 vocabulary learning

Abstract The efficient use of working memory (WM) increases the potential of a learner’s cognitive abilities in learning through multimedia. The present study aims to explore the role of working memory in vocabulary learning through multimedia input. In particular, we explore the possible associations between two components of WM – executive WM and phonological short-term memory (PSTM) – and the effects of three types of input conditions (Definition + Word information + Video, Definition + Word information, and Definition) on second language (L2) vocabulary learning. A total of 95 students completed learning under the three conditions and took two WM tests: a reading span test, which measures complex executive WM, and a non-word span test, which gauges PSTM. We administered a vocabulary knowledge test, which included receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, immediately and after two weeks. Our findings, based on repeated-measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), support the pronounced effects of the Definition + Word information + Video condition in vocabulary learning and retention, as well as the significant role of complex and phonological WM in vocabulary learning and retention under the three conditions. Theoretical and pedagogical implications concerning the role of WM in vocabulary learning through multimedia input are discussed.

Are Different Types of Learning Disorder Associated With Distinct Cognitive Functioning Profiles?

Introduction: DSM-5 presented a revised conceptualization of specific learning disorders (LD). Contrary to former versions, the various types of LD—i.e., mathematics disorder, reading disorder, and writing disorder—are not treated as distinct diagnostic entities but are integrated into one single LD category. In support of this new classification, it has been argued that the various types of LD overlap to a great extent in their cognitive functioning profiles and therefore do not exhibit a distinct set of cognitive causes. In contrast, ICD-11 still adheres to the idea of discrete categories and thus follows the specificity hypothesis of LD. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we therefore tested the specificity of cognitive strengths and weaknesses in children with different types of LD. Secondly, we aimed at examining the extent to which observed LD characteristics (type and severity of LD as well as IQ-achievement discrepancy) were consistent with the membership of a given latent profile.Method: 302 German third-graders (134 girls; IQ ≥ 85; Mage = 111.05 months; SD = 5.76) with single or comorbid types of LD in the domains of mathematics, reading, and spelling completed a wide range of domain-specific and domain-general cognitive functioning measures.Results: Five qualitative distinct profiles of cognitive strengths and weaknesses were identified. Profile 1 (23% of the sample) showed Comprehensive Cognitive Deficits, performing low in all measures except for naming speed, language, and inhibition. Profile 2 (21%) included children with a Double Deficit in Phonological Awareness and Phonological Short-term Memory. Profile 3 (20%) was characterized by a Double Deficit of Phonological Awareness and Naming Speed. Profile 4 (19%) included children with a Single Deficit in Attention, and profile 5 (17%) consisted of children without any cognitive deficits. Moreover, type and severity of LD as well as IQ-achievement discrepancy discriminated between the profiles, which is in line with the specificity hypothesis of LD.Discussion: Overall, the finding of specific associations between the LD types and the identified cognitive profiles supports the ICD-11 classification of LD. Yet, those inferences may not be valid for an individual child but need to be examined through comprehensive diagnostic.

Speech Perception in Noise Predicts Oral Narrative Comprehension in Children With Developmental Language Disorder.

We examined the relative contribution of auditory processing abilities (tone perception and speech perception in noise) after controlling for short-term memory capacity and vocabulary, to narrative language comprehension in children with developmental language disorder. Two hundred and sixteen children with developmental language disorder, ages 6 to 9 years (Mean = 7; 6), were administered multiple measures. The dependent variable was children's score on the narrative comprehension scale of the Test of Narrative Language. Predictors were auditory processing abilities, phonological short-term memory capacity, and language (vocabulary) factors, with age, speech perception in quiet, and non-verbal IQ as covariates. Results showed that narrative comprehension was positively correlated with the majority of the predictors. Regression analysis suggested that speech perception in noise contributed uniquely to narrative comprehension in children with developmental language disorder, over and above all other predictors; however, tone perception tasks failed to explain unique variance. The relative importance of speech perception in noise over tone-perception measures for language comprehension reinforces the need for the assessment and management of listening in noise deficits and makes a compelling case for the functional implications of complex listening situations for children with developmental language disorder.

Sex differences in language competence of 4-year-old children: Female advantages are mediated by phonological short-term memory

AbstractFor some time now, psycholinguistic research has involved the study of sex differences in language development. Overall, girls seem to have an early advantage over boys, mainly in regard to vocabulary, which appears to decrease and, eventually, vanish with age. While there are numerous studies on sex differences in the acquisition of vocabulary as well as grammar, early sex differences in phonological short-term memory (PSTM) have been mostly neglected, or if research was conducted, it resulted in null findings, for the most part. In the present study, we examined sex differences in language competence (in a wide array of linguistic domains) of German children 4 years of age. Several tests were administered to assess articulation, vocabulary, grammar, speech comprehension, and, most importantly, PSTM (by means of the repetition of non-words and sentences). Girls performed better than boys in all domains, although some effect sizes were small. Most importantly, we found evidence for a female advantage in PSTM performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses revealed that the obtained sex differences in articulation, vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension were partially or fully mediated by (sex differences in) PSTM.

Language acquisition of early sequentially bilingual children is moderated by short-term memory for order in developmental language disorder: Findings from the HelSLI study.

The role of domain-general short-term memory (STM) in language development remains controversial. A previous finding from the HelSLI study on children with developmental language disorder (DLD) suggested that not only verbal but also non-verbal STM for temporal order is related to language acquisition in monolingual children with DLD. To investigate if a similar relationship could be replicated in a sample of sequentially bilingual children with DLD. In addition to the effect of age, the effect of cumulative second language (L2) exposure was studied. Sixty-one 4-6-year-old bilingual children with DLD and 63 typically developing (TD) bilingual children participated in a cross-sectional study conducted in their L2. Children completed novel game-like tests of visual and auditory non-verbal serial STM, as well as tests of cognitive functioning and language. Interactions of STM for order with age and exposure to L2 (Finnish) were explored as explanatory variables. First, the improvement of non-verbal serial STM with age was faster in sequentially bilingual TD children than in bilingual children with DLD. A similar effect was observed for L2 exposure. However, when both age and exposure were considered simultaneously, only age was related to the differential growth of non-verbal STM for order in the groups. Second, only in children with DLD was better non-verbal serial STM capacity related to an improvement in language scores with age and exposure. The results suggest that, as previously found in Finnish monolingual children, domain-general serial STM processing is also compromised in bilingual children with DLD. Further, similar to the monolingual findings, better non-verbal serial STM was associated with greater language improvement with age and exposure, but only in children with DLD, in the age range studied here. Thus, in clinical settings, assessing non-verbal serial STM of bilingual children could improve the detection of DLD and understanding of its non-linguistic symptoms. What is already known on the subject Both phonological and non-verbal STM have been associated with DLD in monolingual and sequentially bilingual children. Monolingual children with DLD have also shown slower non-verbal serial STM development than TD children. What this study adds to existing knowledge Sequentially bilingual TD children's non-verbal serial STM improves more between ages 4 and 7 years than that of their peers with DLD, replicating a finding for monolingual children with DLD. Better non-verbal serial STM was especially associated with early receptive language development in sequentially bilingual children with DLD. L2 exposure showed largely comparable effects with age. These results support the hypothesis that a domain-general serial STM deficit is linked to DLD. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Non-verbal assessment of STM for serial order in sequentially bilingual children with DLD could benefit the development of better tailored therapeutic interventions.

Vocabulary Size Is a Key Factor in Predicting Second Language Lexical Encoding Accuracy.

This study investigates the relationship between the accuracy of second language lexical representations and perception, phonological short-term memory, inhibitory control, attention control, and second language vocabulary size. English-speaking learners of Spanish were tested on their lexical encoding of the Spanish /ɾ-r/, /ɾ-d/, /r-d/, and /f-p/ contrasts through a lexical decision task. Perception ability was measured with an oddity task, phonological short-term memory with a serial non-word recognition task, attention control with a flanker task, inhibitory control with a retrieval-induced inhibition task, and vocabulary size with the X_Lex vocabulary test. Results revealed that differences in perception performance, inhibitory control, and attention control were not related to differences in lexical encoding accuracy. Phonological short-term memory was a significant factor, but only for the /r-ɾ/ contrast. This suggests that when representations contain sounds that are differentiated along a dimension not used in the native language, learners with higher phonological short-term memory have an advantage because they are better able to hold the relevant phonetic details in memory long enough to be transferred to long-term representations. Second language vocabulary size predicted lexical encoding across three of the four contrasts, such that a larger vocabulary predicted greater accuracy. This is likely because the acquisition of more phonologically similar words forces learners’ phonological systems to create more detailed representations in order for such words to be differentiated. Overall, this study suggests that vocabulary size in the second language is the most important factor in the accuracy of lexical representations.

Concurrent predictors of word reading and reading comprehension for 9-year-olds with Williams syndrome

We examined the cognitive, language, and instructional factors associated with reading ability in Williams syndrome (WS). Seventy 9-year-olds with WS completed standardized measures of real-word reading, pseudoword decoding, reading comprehension, phonological skills, listening comprehension, nonverbal reasoning, visual-spatial ability, verbal working memory, rapid naming, and vocabulary. Reading instruction method was determined from school records and interviews with parents and teachers. Similar to prior findings for individuals with WS, reading ability varied widely, ranging from inability to read any words to reading comprehension at age level. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the primary concurrent predictor of word reading ability was reading instruction method, with a systematic phonics approach associated with considerably better performance than other reading instruction approaches. Phonological processing skills—as assessed by a composite of phonological awareness and verbal short-term memory—also contributed significant unique variance to word reading ability, as did visual-spatial ability. The concurrent predictors of reading comprehension were single-word reading and listening comprehension. These findings indicate that the factors that predict concurrent early word reading and reading comprehension abilities for children with WS are consistent with previous findings for typically developing children and that the Simple View of Reading applies to children with WS. Children with WS benefit strongly from systematic phonics instruction regardless of IQ. Instruction focused on improving listening comprehension is likely to improve reading comprehension, especially as word reading skills increase.

The Role of Glossing and Working Memory Capacity in Second Language Reading Comprehension

Glossing, providing information for unfamiliar lexical items to promote reading comprehension, has long been investigated as a textual modification technique to promote second language (L2) reading comprehension. Thus far, however, inconclusive findings have been produced as to whether L2 readers’ working memory capacity plays as a moderator of the effects of glossing on L2 reading comprehension. To fill the gap, the present study explored the moderating impact of working memory capacity on the efficacy of glossing in L2 reading comprehension. Eighty-eight Korean university students read two English passages in either a glossed or an unglossed version, while answering multiple-choice reading comprehension items. Participants’ phonological short-term memory was assessed with a digit span task and a Korean nonword repetition task, while their complex working memory was measured with a backward digit span task and an automated operation span task. The results of mixed-effects modeling revealed that forward digit span scores moderated the effects of glossing on L2 reading comprehension scores.

A profile of expressive inflectional morphology in early school-age children with developmental language disorder

ABSTRACT Previous research has established that children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have difficulties producing inflectional morphology, in particular, finiteness marking. However, other categories of inflectional morphology, such as possessive ‘s nominal inflection remain relatively unexplored. Analyses of the characteristics for marking inflection, such as allomorphic categories, may increase our understanding of patterns within disordered grammar to inform the design of interventions and target selection. Data from n = 30 early school-aged children (M = 75 months, SD = 3.38, range = 69–81 months) with DLD were analysed to develop a profile of inflectional morphology skills. Morphological categories included expressive regular past tense, third person singular, and possessive ‘s. Skills were profiled using an elicitation task. The relationships between expressive morphosyntax, and phonological short-term memory and working memory were also explored. Children demonstrated low accuracy in performance across all inflectional categories, including possessive ‘s. There were no significant differences between productions of different morphemes, but syllabic allomorphs ([əd]; [əz]) were produced with significantly lower accuracy than segmental allomorphs ([d], [t]; [z], [s]) across all morphological categories. All correlations between expressive morphosyntax and measures of memory were non-significant. Children with DLD show broad deficits in the ability to mark for inflection, including possessive ‘s; this has implications for theories explaining DLD. Findings may contribute to the design of urgently needed interventions for this clinical population.