Phnom Penh City Research Articles

Households' knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward solid waste management in suburbs of Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

This study developed logistic regression models to analyse the relationship between 12 observed variables on knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward solid waste management in the suburbs of Phnom Penh city. We interviewed 800 households, including 200 collection service users and 600 non-service users. The determinants of how individuals are aware of, think of, and behave were assessed in the models based on the values of estimated coefficient and probability of t-statistics. As a result, education level and knowledge of health effects have positive influences on knowledge of waste problems. Income is a decisive economic factor of knowledge and attitudes. The residents seem dissatisfied with the status of waste management and collection service if they are aware of the problems. The administration, therefore, needs improvements to satisfy the knowledgeable citizens. Service provision to the non-service users is imperative to halt the practice of illegal dumping. However, the infrequent collection still leads to the improper practice of the service users. We suggest that the service is provided widely, efficiently, and regularly.

Exploring the potential of local market in remunerating water ecosystem services in Cambodia: An application for endogenous attribute non-attendance modelling

Abstract Within South East Asia, certification and local market development may play an important role in incentivizing farmers to continue with nature-based solutions delivered by organic or traditional farming practices and avoid using environmentally detrimental production techniques. The purpose of this study is to use economic valuation in order to achieve an empirical understanding of local consumer preferences for different attributes of rice products. Application of the agrarian system approach reveals that rice cultivation systems observed in the Tonle Sape Lake of the Mekong River Basin in Cambodia (our study case) may target three ecosystem services that present the characteristics of public goods and may benefit consumer support. A choice experiment survey was administered among local consumers in the city of Phnom Penh in 2013. Econometric analysis indicates high rate of non-attendance for the price attribute. It also suggests that 17% of the respondents made their choices neglecting attributes describing ecosystem services. However, there are evidence of consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for certified organic rice higher than the price-premium observed on the local market. Furthermore, there is additional WTP value for the preservation of ecosystem services. We discuss the implications of our findings on potential payment for ecosystem services in the specific case of rice.

Municipal solid waste management: Constraints and opportunities to improve capacity of local government authorities of Phnom Penh Capital.

Solid waste management is a challenge for Phnom Penh city owing to the increasing volume of waste produced and insufficient collection capacity. Sustainable management is required in response to continuing population growth and urbanisation. This article aims to examine the status and constraints of solid waste management in Phnom Penh and discuss the performance of local government authorities to propose possible mechanisms and strategies to improve the system. Data were collected through literature reviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions with the local government authorities. Six performance measures were used as assessment variables, including technical, environmental, institutional and organisational, financial and economic, social and cultural, and policy and legal factors. Limited institutional capacity and performance are the consequence of insufficient decentralisation power and allocation of budget and workforce for promoting technological and environmentally sustainable practices. Lack of cooperation and coordination among relevant agencies led to their unwillingness to participate in management performance. A decentralisation and provision of management services in the public-private partnership would enable operational procedures that enhance accountability, transparency, efficiency, and productivity at the local level.

Exposure to gender-based violence and depressive symptoms among transgender women in Cambodia: findings from the National Integrated Biological and Behavioral Survey 2016

BackgroundTransgender women are at significant risk of HIV, and they face intersecting barriers to health, social, and legal services. However, data regarding the unique needs and experiences of transgender women are globally scant. This study examined the relationship between gender-based violence and depressive symptoms among transgender women in Cambodia.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 1375 sexually active transgender women recruited by using the respondent-driven sampling method in the capital city of Phnom Penh and 12 provinces between December 2015 and February 2016. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D). Multivariate regression analysis was conducted to explore factors independently associated with depressive symptoms.ResultsOf total, 45.0% of the participants had depressive symptoms, and 21.8% had severe depressive symptoms. After controlling for potential confounders, transgender women with depressive symptoms remained significantly more likely to report several negative experiences of gender-based violence such as a feeling that co-workers or classmates were not supportive regarding their transgender identity (AOR = 2.00, 95% CI = 1.22–3.28), having difficulties in getting a job (AOR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.29–2.16), having been denied or thrown out of housing (AOR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.02–2.26), having difficulties in getting health services (AOR = 2.40, 95% CI = 1.50–3.82), having been physically abused (AOR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.15–2.08), and having been fearful of being arrested by police or authorities (AOR = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.64–2.91) because of their transgender identity. Regarding their childhood experiences, transgender women with depressive symptoms remained significantly more likely to report that someone had tried to touch them or make them touch in a sexual way when they were growing up (AOR = 2.08, 95% CI = 1.61–2.68).ConclusionsTransgender women in Cambodia experience high levels of gender-based violence and depressive symptoms. To address these concerns, a combination of service and policy interventions are required. These may include training and sensitization of trained and lay health providers in screening for depressive symptoms and integration of mental health services into facility- and community-based HIV services with enforcement of policies and laws that protect the rights of transgender women against gender-based violence.

Suitability assessment for handling methods of municipal solid waste

Solid waste management is challenging in Phnom Penh city, Capital of Cambodia. The only one formal treatment taken is the final disposal of mixed waste into an open dumpsite. The current study analyses the physical and chemical characteristics of municipal solid waste disposed of in the dumpsite to assess their suitable handling methods. The current study found that the major compositions of waste are food waste (49.18%) and plastic (21.13%), and recyclable waste shares about 17.28% of the total. On average, it contains 60.92% moisture, 35.89% combustible, 3.19% ash, 58.32% carbon and 1.05% nitrogen. High calorific value is 10.03 MJ/kg when the low calorific value is 7.77 MJ/kg. The moisture content is too high to meet the technology demands, especially in the rainy season. It seems workable for incineration without energy recovery. Gasification for melting and incineration with energy recovery are only suitable for the dry season. If the solid waste is well pre-separated, material recovery could be one of the suitable handling methods. Food waste, wood and leave could be digested in the one-stage continuous wet system and co-composted, and plastic is appropriate for refuse-derived fuel generation. The current study recommends that the waste pre-separation should be requisite for any handling methods.

Youth paying for sex: what are the associated factors? Findings from a cross-sectional study in Cambodia

BackgroundAt-risk male youth in Cambodia who purchase sex are at greater risk for HIV compared to the general population. Factors associated with paying for sex among youth are poorly studied, both globally and in Cambodia. This study aimed to identify specific factors associated with transactional sex with women among most-at-risk male youth in Cambodia.MethodsThis cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted with 405 sexually active male youth aged 16–24 recruited at ‘hotspots’ in the capital city of Phnom Penh and seven provinces. We collected data on demographic factors, sexual behaviors, HIV testing and other potential factors. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with transactional sex.ResultsIn total, this study included 405 male youth with a mean age of 21.3 (SD = 2.2). Of the total respondents, 82.5% (n = 334) have ever paid for sex. After controlling for potential confounding, participants who purchased sex in the last 12 months remained significantly more likely to be older than 18 (AOR = 3.60, 95% CI = 1.26–10.62), reside in an urban area (AOR = 2.29, 95% CI = 1.24–4.20), never have been married (AOR = 9.58, 95% CI = 4.34–21.12), spend less than 2.55 USD per day (AOR = 2.22, 95% CI = 1.12–4.40), and have had more than 4.6 sexual partners in the past year (AOR = 16.73, 95% CI = 4.71–59.36).ConclusionsThis study highlights the high proportion of Cambodian male youth who paid for sex and the potential challenges to addressing this issue. While the majority of HIV prevention interventions surrounding sex work are aimed at female sex workers themselves, targeting the demand side of sex work, particularly the local demand, may be an important next step towards a sustainable HIV prevention.

Global logistics city concept: a cluster-led strategy under the belt and road initiative

ABSTRACTThis paper develops a cluster-led strategic policy framework to assess the strategic positioning of key global logistics cities in Asia, most of which are affected by the ‘Belt and Road (B&R) Initiative.’ One of the key challenges that the B&R Initiative is facing is underdeveloped logistics infrastructure in Asia, not to mention road congestion, dilapidated infrastructure, incessant supply chain disruptions, and capacity constraint, which imposes significant economic costs.Global logistics cities are evaluated on logistics infrastructure capacity and service responsiveness. This involves selecting the key global logistics cities, identifying key indicators, standardising and indexing, mapping dimensions of global logistics cities, and developing the cluster-led strategic policy framework.The results indicate the prevalence of a multi-tier system wherein Shanghai and Hong Kong have attained the maturity of a global logistics city, whilst Manila, Jakarta, and Bangalore are making slow but steady progress in that direction. In contrast, Dhaka, Phnom Penh, and Ho Chi Minh City are showing potential but require further enhancement through significant investment in infrastructure and service delivery improvement.The cluster-led strategic policy framework formulates actions and strategies through which emergent logistics networks can be strategically aligned and functionally integrated with B&R-oriented global trading hubs and transport corridors..

Industrial pollution load assessment in Phnom Penh, Cambodia using an industrial pollution projection system

Approximately 56% out of the total 1302 Cambodian firms are operated in the Capital city of Cambodia. The necessary information on industrial pollution to set strategies, priorities and action plans on environmental protection issues is absent in Cambodia. In the absence of this data, effective environmental protection cannot be implemented. The objective of this study is to estimate industrial pollution load by employing the Industrial Pollution Projection System, a rapid environmental management tool for assessment of pollution load, to produce a scientific rational basis for preparing future policy direction to reduce industrial pollution in Phnom Penh city. Factory data between 1994 and 2014 obtained from the Ministry of Industry and Handicraft of Cambodia were used in our study.Due to the high number of employees, the total environmental load generated in Phnom Penh city was estimated to be 476,981Mg in 2014. Phnom Penh city generated 189,109Mg of VOC, 165,411Mg of toxic chemicals to air, 38,523Mg of toxic chemicals to land, and 28,968Mg of SO2 in 2014. The results of the estimation show that the Textiles and Apparel sector was the highest generators of toxic chemicals into land and air, and toxic metals into land, air and water, while the Basic Metal sector was the greatest contributor of toxic chemicals to water. The Textiles and Apparel sector alone emitted 436,016Mg of total pollution load. The results indicate that the Dangkao and Meanchey districts were the greatest emitters of all pollutants in Phnom Penh. The results suggest that reduction in industrial pollution could be achieved by focusing on the most polluting sectors and areas. Adopting waste minimization strategies, which include cleaner production processes, will not only reduce the cost of controlling pollution, it will also make manufacturing more efficient thereby increasing profits while reducing pollution load in the long run.

Electrical resistivity tomography determines the spatial distribution of clay layer thickness and aquifer vulnerability, Kandal Province, Cambodia

Despite being rich in water resources, many areas of South East Asia face difficulties in securing clean water supply. This is particularly problematic in regions with a rapidly growing population. In this study, the spatial variability of the thickness of a clay layer, controlling surface – groundwater interactions that affect aquifer vulnerability, was investigated using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). Data were acquired along two transects, showing significant differences in the imaged resistivities. Borehole samples were analyzed regarding particle density and composition, and linked to their resistivity. The obtained relationships were used to translate the field electrical resistivities into lithologies. Those revealed considerable variations in the thickness of the clay layer, ranging from 0m up to 25m. Geochemical data, highlighting zones of increased ingress of surface water into the groundwater, confirmed areas of discontinuities in the clay layer, which act as preferential flow paths. The results may guide urban planning of the Phnom Penh city expansion, in order to supply the growing population with safe water. The presented approach of using geophysics to estimate groundwater availability, accessibility, and vulnerability is not only applicable to Kandal Province, Cambodia, but also to many other areas of fast urbanization in South East Asia and beyond.

How understanding and application of drug-related legal instruments affects harm reduction interventions in Cambodia: a qualitative study

BackgroundHarm reduction interventions in Cambodia face numerous obstacles because of conflicting understanding and interests and inconsistencies in the implementation by law enforcement officials. This study aims to examine how understanding and application of Drug Control Law (DCL) and Village/Commune Safety Policy (VCSP) affects harm reduction interventions in Cambodia from the standpoints of law enforcement officials, people who inject drugs and people who use drugs (PWID/PWUD), as well as other key stakeholders.MethodsThis qualitative study was conducted in the capital city of Phnom Penh in 2015. We held five focus group discussions (FGDs) with groups of PWID/PWUD, police officers, Sangkat/commune officers, and local non-governmental organization (NGO) field staff. We also conducted ten key informant interviews (KIIs) with representatives from government agencies, donor agencies, and NGOs. FGDs and KIIs with Cambodian participants were transcribed in Khmer and translated into English. KIIs with foreign participants were transcribed in English. Transcripts were read and re-read to identify emerging themes, which were reviewed and refined to develop common and divergent patterns.ResultsThere was a huge gap between what the DCL and VCSP say and how law enforcement officers and PWID/PWUD understood them. The gap was also evident in how law enforcement officers implemented the DCL and VCSP. Harm reduction services, including health- and non-health-related interventions, were limited and challenged by unsupportive attitudes, misinterpretation of the DCL and VCSP, and the lack of full engagement with NGOs in the development of these instruments. The needs of PWID/PWUD in accessing health care services were not met due to misconduct of authorities while practicing the DCL and VCSP. Further, the misconduct and enforcement of the law and policy lead to increased social discrimination and physical abuses against PWID/PWUD.ConclusionsThere is a lack of common understanding of the drug-related law and policy and their implications to harm reduction services among both law enforcement officers and PWID/PWUD. Thus, there is a need to mainstream and simplify the law and policy for better comprehension among these actors. To improve the quality and coverage of harm reduction interventions, the gap of understanding and enforcement of laws and policies should be narrowed, and coordination between the government and NGOs and other key stakeholders should be strengthened.

Intensive Circulation of Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Peri-urban Sentinel Pigs near Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Despite the increased use of vaccination in several Asian countries, Japanese Encephalitis (JE) remains the most important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia in humans with an estimated 68,000 cases annually. Considered a rural disease occurring mainly in paddy-field dominated landscapes where pigs are amplifying hosts, JE may nevertheless circulate in a wider range of environment given the diversity of its potential hosts and vectors. The main objective of this study was to assess the intensity of JE transmission to pigs in a peri-urban environment in the outskirt of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. We estimated the force of JE infection in two cohorts of 15 sentinel pigs by fitting a generalised linear model on seroprevalence monitoring data observed during two four-month periods in 2014. Our results provide evidence for intensive circulation of JE virus in a periurban area near Phnom Penh, the capital and most populated city of Cambodia. Understanding JE virus transmission in different environments is important for planning JE virus control in the long term and is also an interesting model to study the complexity of vector-borne diseases. Collecting quantitative data such as the force of infection will help calibrate epidemiological model that can be used to better understand complex vector-borne disease epidemiological cycles.

Acceptability Study on HIV Self-Testing among Transgender Women, Men who Have Sex with Men, and Female Entertainment Workers in Cambodia: A Qualitative Analysis.

BackgroundIn Cambodia, HIV prevalence is high while HIV testing rates remain low among transgender women (TG women), men who have sex with men (MSM), and female entertainment workers (FEW). Introducing self-testing for HIV to these key populations (KPs) could potentially overcome the under-diagnosis of HIV and significantly increase testing rates and receipt of the results, and thus could decrease transmission. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the acceptability of HIV self-testing (HIVST) among these three categories of KPs.MethodsThis study was conducted through focus group discussions (FGDs) with TG women, MSM, and FEW in Phnom Penh city, Kampong Cham, Battambang, and Siem Reap provinces of Cambodia. Convenience sampling was used to recruit the participants. Two FGDs (six participants in each FGD) were conducted in each target group in each study site, totaling 24 FGDs (144 participants). Thematic analysis was performed to identify common or divergent patterns across the target groups.ResultsAlmost all participants among the three groups (TG women, MSM, and FEW) had not heard about HIVST, but all of them expressed willingness to try it. They perceived HIVST as confidential, convenient, time-saving, and high-tech. Barriers to obtaining HIVST included cost, access, administration technique, embarrassment, and fear of pain. The majority preferred counseling before and after testing.ConclusionsParticipants showed high willingness to use and acceptability of HIVST due to its confidentiality/privacy and convenience even if it is not linked to a confirmatory test or care and treatment. Notwithstanding, to increase HIVST, the target groups would need affordable self-test kits, education about how to perform HIVST and read results, assurance about accuracy and reliability of HIVST, and provision of post-test counseling and facilitation of linkage to care and treatment.

Postsocialist informality: The making of owners, squatters and state rule in Phnom Penh, Cambodia (1989–1993)

In this paper, I analyze struggles over land in the capital city of Phnom Penh in the course of Cambodia's postsocialist transition. In 1989 Cambodia's socialist regime adopted a set of liberal reforms including comprehensive land reform. While land reform was a source of authority for the regime, the rapidity and unevenness of the land reform process created deep divisions within its state apparatus itself. Drawing on land disputes filed with the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia in 1992 and 1993, I document shifting conditions of ownership and authority in the city. I first discuss the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia land dispute files in general, before analyzing two, group disputes over formerly state lands in detail. Struggles over formerly state lands were particularly contentious, as who could claim, govern, and allocate these lands was an open question in the transitional period. I argue that these struggles were integral to the remaking of state rule. I use the term “postsocialist informality” to foreground this particular historical moment of state–society reconfiguration, while also underscoring the political constitution of the categories of public and private, owner and squatter, themselves.

Monitoring Land Use and Land Cover Effects on Water Quality in Cheung Ek Lake using ASTER Images

Cheung Ek Lake is the biggest natural treatment plant for nearly 80% of wastewater and storm-water from Phnom Penh city. Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) changes of the lake and its catchment area could deteriorate capacity of the lake in purifying wastewater and affect to its water quality. The study aims to assess the relationship between LULC changes and water quality using ASTER images with field observations. Three pairs of temporal ASTER images in 2002, 2009 and 2011 acquired in dry season were used to make LULC map with five classes: (1) Urban or built-up areas, (2) rangeland, (3) agricultural land, (4) water bodies and (5) barren land, using Maximum Likelihood (ML) classification method. Post-classification comparison was chosen to study changes from 2002 to 2009 and from 2009 to 2011. The water quality data of the Ministry of Environment from 2000 to 2013 were used to study water quality change. Spatial distribution of water quality parameters including total phosphorus, total nitrogen, chemical oxygen demand, five-day biochemical oxygen demand, total suspended solids and chlorophyll-a was observed in the rainy and dry seasons in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The results showed that ML gave moderate level with overall accuracy of around 60% and Kappa coefficient of around 0.48 for classification images in all three dates. Also, some significant change were happened between 2002 and 2011; rangeland decreased by approximately 22%, while agricultural land and urban or built-up areas increased by more than 2 and 16%, respectively. In addition to the downward trend of water quality status changes recorded by the Ministry of Environment from 2000 to 2013, the spatial distribution maps revealed that wastewater from the city was the main source of water quality deterioration. These results might be suggested that LULC changes of the lake’s catchment area appeared to have negative effects on water quality of the lake.

Generation and Characteristics of commercial solid waste in Phnom Penh City, Cambodia

Generation and Characteristics of commercial solid waste in Phnom Penh City, Cambodia

3D geological modelling and geotechnical characteristics of Phnom Penh subsoils in Cambodia

Subsoil characterisation is an important task in both geotechnical and geological engineering. In recent years, a number of subsurface investigations have increased as a result of infrastructure construction in Phnom Penh City in Cambodia. Although there had been investigations on the geotechnical characteristics of the subsoils, understanding soil characteristics and 3D modelling of geological structures of Phnom Penh subsoils have not yet been tackled. This research aims to conduct a 3D geological modelling by means of commercial software called Groundwater Modelling System (GMS), as well as provide an insight into the geotechnical properties of Phnom Penh subsoils. Over 1,200 soil boring log data were employed to build the 3D soil stratigraphic system in Phnom Penh City. The engineering properties of the Phnom Penh subsoils such as physical properties (i.e., grain size distribution and Atterberg limits) and engineering properties (i.e., compressibility, undrained shear strength and internal friction angle) have been highlighted in this paper. Finally, the analysis results of geotechnical data can be used to construct some useful empirical correlations such as the relationship of the undrained shear strength to the SPT-N value.

Waste-to-Energy Technology Assessment for Household Cooking Fuel in Phnom Penh Capital City of Cambodia

Lack of energy, fire wood use, and deforestation problem are the main issues in Cambodia. In rural area, small biogasification plant project has been successfully conducted. However, it was not applied in urban area such as Phnom Penh city. This study is focused on the household cooking fuel in urban area and aims to find the alternative cooking fuel to wood in Phnom Penh city. With literature reviews, field survey and interviews, we reviewed small biogasification, central biogas plant, and solid refuse fuel as an applicable technology for supplying cooking fuel. We considered the procurement of raw materials, land use, odor problem, operation and maintenance difficulty, and health impact in using indoors. Consequently, solid refuse fuel from bagasse has the potential to supply alternative cooking fuel. Further researches on stakeholder interview and business potential are necessary. Through literature reviews and field survey, it was found there are many failure cases. It is the most necessary to reflect the regions characteristics and the local experts opinions for applying waste-to-energy technology successfully in developing countries.

The effects of faculty behaviors on the academic achievement of first-year Cambodian urban university students

Research on the faculty impact on students’ academic achievement has been disproportionately confined to the context of countries with developed higher education systems. Few studies have been undertaken in the developing world like Cambodia. This study employed hierarchical linear modeling to examine the relationships between faculty behaviors and the academic achievement of university students in Cambodia, using the data of 923 first-year students from nine universities in Phnom Penh City. Results indicated that faculty behavior, namely their support and feedback to students, was a unique factor that had a strong and positive influence on students’ academic achievement. Its effect was the same for all students regardless of their pre-university academic experience and geographical origin and partially moderated by student engagement in time spent on course-related tasks outside the classroom, assigned homework/tasks, class participation, and class preparation. Contrary to existing findings from faculty impact studies, no relation was found for faculty’s instructional organization and clarity or classroom practices that challenge students on academic achievement. Practical implications for assessment policies and instructional practices are discussed.

Transecting Security and Space in Phnom Penh

Our paper examines everyday interactions of money, power, and security in Cambodia's capital city of Phnom Penh, informed by a series of transects and interviews. When Phnom Penh hosted the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Summit in April 2012, Prime Minister Hun Sen declared that “Cambodia is not for sale” in an angry exchange with journalists who had quizzed him about China's influence. However, the sale and enclosure of Cambodian land and property have yielded both profit and tensions. These are connected with the meanings and operation of security. The most powerful ‘security’ agency in Phnom Penh is neither wholly ‘public’ nor fully ‘private’, but hybrid; where public police and military personnnel and their equipment are purchased. We argue that this is symptomatic of circulation/operation of state/capital in Cambodia.

The Relationships between Student Engagement and the Academic Achievement of First-Year University Students in Cambodia

This study examined the relationships between student engagement in academically relevant activities and their academic achievement in the first year of university in Cambodia, and tested the presence of conditional effects of student engagement on achievement by students’ gender, geographical origin, and pre-university academic experience. The participants were 919 first-year students at nine universities in Phnom Penh City. Student engagement was measured using a revised version of the National Survey of Student Engagement and the College Student Experiences Questionnaire. The regression analyses revealed that the student engagement in time spent on out-of-class course-related tasks, homework/tasks, and active participation in classroom settings added significant values to Cambodian student achievement. Contrary to the extensive student engagement literature in developed countries, student engagement in out-of-class peer learning and extensive reading did not make any meaningful impacts on student achievement in the present study. Certain effects of student engagement on achievement tended to differ in magnitude by students’ pre-university academic experience and geographical origin. Implications for policy are discussed with a call for solid programs to promote and enhance the quality of student engagement activities on-and off-campus, especially among the academically disadvantaged students.