Philosophical Movement Research Articles

Ontology and the Possibility of Religious Knowledge

ontological determinants of human experience in terms of which religious knowledge (as well as other types of knowledge) can become an ontic possibility? The formulation of our question suggests that the question of knowing is inseparable from the question of being and that any ontic analysis of the sources, methods, and criteria of the special types of knowledge presupposes an ontological understanding of the conditions which make human knowledge possible. Knowledge presupposes being. Cognitive attitudes and methodological procedures, if they are to be anything more than arbitrary constructions, are referential to regions or orders of being and intentional structures within these orders which determine their adequacy or legitimacy of application. The order of matter, for example (independent now of the question concerning its nature and status), as circumscribing the province of the physical sciences, has a peculiar propriety for experimental investigation and quantitative analysis. And, strictly defined, the scientific method possesses precisely this character. Logical empiricism, more than any other contemporary philosophical movement, has concerned itself with a clarification of the methods and criteria of meaning which are applicable to scientific knowledge and has emerged with some notable (and probably noteworthy) results. The logical empiricist argues that the meaning and truth of logical statements are rooted in the criterion of rational intelligibility. Logical propositions, or what Hume had already referred to as relations of ideas, are true if their denial entails a contradiction. A square has four sides or all bachelors are males is a logical truth which carries meaning by virtue of its self-evident character. Empirical state* Calvin O. Schrag is currently an associate professor of philosophy at Purdue University. He was formerly a teaching fellow at Harvard University and a visiting lecturer in philosophy at the University of Illinois (1959-60). He holds the degrees of B.A. (Bethel College, Newton, Kansas) ; B.D. (Yale Divinity School); and Ph.D. (Harvard University). He is the author of Existence and Freedom: Towards an Ontology of Human Finitude, published by Northwestern University Press in 1961. He has also served on a staff of twenty distinguished American scholars who compiled and edited Masterpieces of World Philosophy in Summary Form, published in 1961. In addition, he has contributed articles to such scholarly periodicals as Revue internationale de philosophie; Dialectics; Review of Metaphysics; Ethics; the Personalist; the Journal of Religious Thought; and the Modern Schoolman. This past summer a research grant from the Purdue Research Foundation sent him to the Sorbonne in Paris and the University of Louvain, Belgium, to study contemporary European phenomenology in the Edmund Husserl archives.

The library of philosophical movements

The library of philosophical movements

The Revolt Against Logical Atomism--I

Philosophical movements rise and fall, not excluding those that set out to end all movements or even philosophy itself. Having run its course, a movement is either found wanting or judged to have made a contribution. In either case, it is vigorous while the clever young men gather around its banner. And, of course, there are always many clever young men eager to enlist. Oxford is now the centre of a vigorous movement. Surely it is not the whole of contemporary British philosophy. Yet hardly anyone now philosophizing in Britain or, for that matter, in this country, is unaware of it. Urmson's1 recent book hails from Oxford. For at least two reasons it

REVIEWS

Book reviewed in this article:The Problem of Jesus. By Jean Guitton. Translated by A. Gordon Smith.History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages. By Etienne Gilson.The Philosophical Movement in the Thirteenth Century. By Fernand Van Steenberghen.Philosophical Analysis. Its Development Between the Two World Wars. By J.O. Urmson.The Illusion of the Epoch. Marxism‐Leninism as a Philosophical Creed. By H. B. Acton.Communismånd Christianity. By M. C. D'Arcy.One Front Across the World. By Douglas Hyde.The Supreme Doctrine. By Hubert Benoit, with an Introduction by Aldous Huxley.Buddhist Meditation. By Edward Conze.World Indivisible. By Konrad Adenauer. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston.Yesterday and Today and Forever. By Maria Augusta Trapp.St Anne, Grandmother of Our Saviour. By Frances Parkinson Keyes.Shane Leslie's Ghost Book.The Anacreonta. Translated into English verse by P. M. Pope.Victor Hugo. By André Maurois. Translated from the French by Gerard Hopkins.

Japan, Philosophy and Thomism

JAPAN, PHILOSOPHY AND THOMISM T HE history of mediaeval philosophy, largely in the sense of Thomism, did not begin in Japan with the introductoin of Christianty in the sixteenth century. At that time several seminaries were established by Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries, but no active philosophical movements seem to have followed. A Japanese translation of the De lmitatione Christi appeared in 1596, only some forty years after the arrival of St. Francis Xavier, and was one of the outstanding literary productions of the period. There seems to be special significance in the fact that this book was chosen. Probably the Fathers thought it was a work most likely to find sympathetic readers among the Japanese, and it is noteworthy that since then there have been at least four more renderings. Unfortunately, religious persecutions, which began at the beginning of the seventeenth century and lasted until 1870, wiped out virtually everything in Japan related to Christianity. Japan's acquaintance with mediaeval philosophy actually begins with the re-introduction of Western thought in the latter part of the nineteenth century. But the history of scholasticism in Japan cannot be divorced, if it is to be understood, from the progress in that country of western philosophy in general. And so a synopsis of Japan's reaction to some important European thinkers may helpfully preface a study of Japan's attitude towards mediaeval philosophy in general and Thomism in particular. I Five periods may be distinguished in the career of European philosophy in Japan. Period I: 1878-1890-from the inception of the department of philosophy in the Imperial University of 250 JAPAN, PHILOSOPHY AND THOMISM 251 Tokyo 1 to the opening of the National Diet. This period was marked by what may be called a Japanese equivalent of the Enlightenment in political and philosophical thought. The new government of Emperor Meiji, which overthrew the old and entrenched feudal despotism in 1868, at least professed democratic principles and promised the people equal social, political and economic opportunities as well as a share in government. The spirit of the times was practicaL It aimed at destroying feudalism, establishing democratic processes and accelerating economic expansion. These objectives were manifest in the European philosophical systems which, because of what they might be expected to contribute to the new outlook, were seized upon by Japanese intellectuals. Emphasis was on political, economic, social and legal theories. Writers such as Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), J. J. Rousseau (1712-1778), and C. L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) were read, studied, absorbed and popularized. Translations appeared, and the doctrine of the divine origin of human rights proved especially captivating, spreading beyond academic walls into popular discussion. J. S. Mill (1806-1873), with his Utilitarianism, and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) found ardent champions. Darwin (1809-1882), with his theory of evolution, and Ernest Haeckel (1834-1919), with his materialism, also won followers. Period II: 1890-1905-from the opening of the National Diet to the end of the Russo-Japanese War, is doubly ;ignificant . For one thing, philosophical and critical thinking becomes more and more isolated from contemporary social and political movements and more restricted to academic theorizing. The other development is the cultivation of German philosophers, such as Kant (1724-1804), Hegel (1770-1831), Schopenhauer (1788-1860), Eduard von Hartmann (1842-1906), Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), Johannes Volkelt (1848-1930), Nietzsche (1844-1900), and R. H. I.otze (1817-1881) . It is noteworthy 1 From the beginning, the Imperial University of Tokyo was, and continues to be, preeminent in philosophical movements. Other Japanese universities tend to accept and follow its leadership. 252 B. R. INAGAKI AND J. B. MCALLISTER that the disassociation of philosophy from practical considerations parallels the introduction and cultivation of German writers. Period HI: 1905-1918-from the end of the Russo-Japanese War to the dose of World War I. Japan's victory over Russia touched off tremendous economic expansion. National industry soared while in philosophy German idealism predominated. Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel proved most attractive. Their major works were translated; their doctrines were studied privately and presented in formal university courses. Raphael von Koeber (1848-1923) came to enjoy immense prestige among the young students at the...

The Philosophical Movement in the Thirteenth Century

The Philosophical Movement in the Thirteenth Century

The Subjective Tradition in Phenomenological Psychology

Phenomenology, currently the most active philosophical movement on the European scene, has shown persistent concern for psychological problems and principles, and for the science of psychology in general. This concern has taken the form of various attempts to amend psychology according to phenomenological precepts and methods with the intent of providing it with a new metaphysical basis. Recent examples of this trend are the textbook of Snygg and Combs (20) and the two books published in France by the philosopher, Merleau-Ponty (16, 18).

Cultures of the Central Highlands, New Guinea

Cultures of the Central Highlands, New Guinea

The Problem of Theophilus

It might be thought that in five recent articles the productive ore in the mine of Theophilus of Antioch had been exhausted. On the contrary, these articles have been concerned primarily with the question of what Theophilus said. The basic problem “Why did he say it?” remains unsolved. The purpose of this article is to endeavor to analyze his thought more closely and to determine his place in the religious and philosophical movements of his time.

The background to the linguistic conceptions of Bopp

Linguistics has to complete itself by a continual self-criticism concerning its principles, c.q. pre-conceptions. There is a growing tendency nowadays in the direction of these “vertical” investigations, though in history of linguistics this is an exception. Bopp, the inaugurator of Comparative Linguistics, delivers a specimen of — seemingly — most unbiased scholarship, without any pre-conception at all. A fresh inquiry has been made here into the origin of Bopp's fundamental views, firstly by analysing Bopp's theories to find the characteristic features, secondly by attempting to locate these traits in a spiritual bend or a philosophic movement of his time. Have had to pass in review: the Schlegels and Grimm (Romanticism), von Humboldt (Kantianism), the Dutch Graecists and the French writers of grammaires générales (Enlightenment) — upon whom some new light may have been shed. Finally, to all appearance, Bopp's principles fit in with the mathematical Rationalism, the greatest and last exponent of which is the linguist-philosopher Leibniz.

Trends of Catholic Thought on The Continent

Amidst the turmoils of the war, of which the Eternal City itself has become one of. the centres, the Holy Father has issued two Encyclicals devoted entirely to subjects interest in which is apparently confined to theologians. These are the Encyclical oh biblical studies and the earlier Mystici corporis Christi. The encouragement given through the first of these Encyclicals to the study of Holy Scripture is of the greatest significance with regard to countries which, in that respect, still labour under ideas formed during the Penal times. But what interest to these is the refutation of certain theological errors as given in the Encyclical Mystici Corporis? Where, in English Catholic literature, have the excesses of the liturgical movement or the exaggerations of the teaching on the mystical Body of Christ, referred to in that Encyclical, been advocated?The passages in which the Encyclical concerns itself with those errors clearly refer to the Continent, in particular to Central Europe. If we regard the spiritual position of German-speaking Catholics as one of the most important points in the reconstruction of Europe and its Christian tradition, those errors gain in topical significance. The history of Catholic theology and philosophy of the 19th century reveals two main influences. The one, mainly concerning philosophy and dogma, originated from the philosophical movement known as German idealism. Far from being confined to Germany, however, it comprised, in its very origin and foundation, at least France as well. It influenced not only German Catholics whose teachings the Church condemned, such as Hermes, Guenther, Frohschammer and in later years Schell, but also French and Italian thinkers including Lammenais, Bautain and Rosmini.

Facts and Reality in the Social Sciences

QNE of the major obstacles to further progress in the social sciences is the lack of agreement among social scientists with respect to the problems raised by F. A. Hayek in his recent paper entitled The Facts of the Social Sciences., It is indeed a good omen for the future of economic science that some economists are finding it worth while to examine the philosophical underpinnings of their science. In the past, too many economists have displayed a deplorable lack of acquaintance with the large philosophical issues that are to be found at their very doorstep. These economists would do well to keep in mind that in the development of their science such great figures as Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and Thorstein Veblen were profound students of philosophical thought, as well as investigators in the field of social science. A thesis could very well be worked up to show that important developments in economic thought have usually had a firm foundation in some related philosophical movement. Such a thesis would also raise the question of whether it is the case that twentiethcentury philosophic thought has already run ahead of current economic thinking. If this is true, then the transition through which economic science is now passing may very well turn out to be a matter of reconstructing the philosophical foundations of that science. F. A. Hayek's essay on the nature of

The Twilight Years of Russian Culture

The Storm of the revolution of 1917 not only swept away the old Russian historical landmarks, but it also spread confusion among the leaders of literary and philosophical movements of the time. On the eve of the great upheaval, Russia had known what can be called a true spiritual and artisticrenaissance. It was the period of Diagilev's Russian Ballet, of Stravinsky's first masterpieces, of Chaliapin's and Rachmaninov's triumphs, and of the creation of the “World of Art”, a brilliant school of painters. In the field of literature and thought, Dostoievsky's posthumous influence was still strongly felt. There were the trends of religious philosophy developed by Vladimir Soloviev and the ethical doctrines of Tolstoy. There were the writings of Leonid Andreiev and the rising fame of Gorky. Vassily Rozanov, Nicholas Berdiaev and Dmitry Merejkovsky stimulated a deeper and more direct understanding of Christianity. They threw new light on spiritual and social problems.

The So-Called Synthesis in Medieval Philosophy

The notion of a synthesis in medieval philosophy and theology is itself the resultant of a given attitude toward the study of broadly cultural and philosophical movements. Now modern historical research, by employing as one of its main concepts the principle of continuity, has been of great service in tracing the line of connection between historical individuals and events which would otherwise have appeared as isolated separated points without any significant connection. Insofar, however, as the aspect of continuity in history has been emphasized, there has been a proportionate danger that the unique differences of the individuals which are united by a single thread are disregarded. As a result, analysis of the specific problems faced by individual philosophers and of the methods which they devised to deal with the problem as conceived by them, has yielded in order of emphasis to a wider and looser manner of characterizing philosophic positions, as e. g., realistic, idealistic, pragmatic, etc., often unaccompanied by a knowledge of the method actually employed by the philosophy in question.

Russian Sophiology

It is commonly thought that gnostic systems are grounded upon a dualist conception of the origin of the Universe, but this is subject to question. Gnosticism was the source of many religious and philosophical movements in nowise marked by dualism, suffice it to recall Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and later the mediaeval adepts of secret teachings who, through many perversions, were seeking for the one Divine Absolute. Dualistic elements, more or less marked in different gnostic systems, co-existed with a monistic element often predominant.In Christianity pure dualism, i.e., the essential and primordial opposition between two distinct principles, has existed only within Manicheism which owed its origin to Persian Mazdeism. Before Manes this Persian dualism had only an indirect influence upon the great syncretistic movement of the Hellenic world. Actually this term—dualism— is applicable only there where the principle of evil is considered to be in its origin independent of its opposite—the principle of good. In the gnostic systems the evil principle is the outcome of a slow evolution proceeding from a unique First Principle. These systems are essentially monistic, differing one from another precisely by the way they conceive this creative evolution resulting in an inferior world and its final reintegration into the Godhead. The ancient gnosis, with its multiple systems, was an effort to connect the actuality of the material world with the divine transcendency. Modern Russian thinkers are concerned with the same problems. Gnosticism originated outside Christianity, but borrowed its soteriological doctrine as a basis for speculations closer to pantheism than to dualism, and it is within this pantheist evolution that the idea of Sophia, link between the unknowable and the actual, originated.

The Philosophical Movement in Germany

The Philosophical Movement in Germany

The Reformation Historically Explained

By many scientists as well as by the pragmatist philos-ophers we are told that the best, if not the only possible, test of a given thing is what it does. From physics we learn that whereas the nature of matter or of electricity defies definition, it is possible to describe the operation or effect that each has. In a book of economics I have read the definition “money is what money does.” Apparently the same test must be applied to historical phenomena. If we would know the real nature of a given invention or a new ideal we must inquire exactly what was the change in human life that it introduced. It is this test that I propose to apply to the Reformation. I propose to show that of seven great changes which came over the people of Western Europe in the sixteenth century the Reformation was the ideal expression; in part effect, in part cause, in part so intimately connected with some social, philosophical, political or economic movement, that it is hard to say which it is.

Neo-Realism and Religion

Neo-Realism, we shall all agree, has come to stay. Though the most recent of philosophical movements, it has already made an abiding impression on contemporary thought. Less noisy than Pragmatism, less fashionable than Bergson's Intuitionism, it has yet quietly won over to its side a far larger number of the younger students of philosophy than one would suspect from the comparatively small amount of Neo-Realistic literature. What is even more striking, its criticisms of Idealism have had at least this effect, that many thinkers who are commonly labelled “Idealists” have hastened to dissociate themselves once more in the most explicit terms from that sort of Idealism of which the watchword is Berkeley's esse est percipi. The so-called “Objective Idealists” have become noticeably more objective. To have compelled this re-alignment is in itself no small achievement to the credit of Neo-Realism.

Italian Modernism, Social and Religious

During the past year a prolonged stay in Italy gave me occasion to visit most of the larger cities between Naples and the Alps, and supplied the opportunity of personal contact with many of the men who are now at the helm of Italian social, religious, and philosophical movements, while at the same time I was able to obtain first-hand acquaintance with the thoughts and desires of the Italian laborer. I soon became aware of the variety, intensity, and complexity of the issues which are now agitating Italian public life. It is true that Latin blood warms more rapidly, and reaches a higher temperature in controversy, than that of the Anglo-Saxon. But no superficial grievances are those over which conflict now rages; both in politics and in religion the contending parties feel that the joust of the tournament-field has become a battle for existence.