Phasianus Colchicus Research Articles

Diseases in gamebirds: an update

Since previous publications in In Practice on disease control in adult pheasants (Pennycott 2001) and diseases in young pheasants (Welchman 2008), the numbers of gamebirds reared and released in Britain...

Complete sequence determination and analysis of the Guangxi Phasianus colchicus (Galliformes: Phasianidae) mitochondrial genome

The complete mitochondrial genome sequence of the Guangxi Phasianus colchicus was measured by PCR-based methods and analyzed in detail. Our research findings reveal that the entire mitochondrial genome of P. colchicus is a circular molecule of length 16,687 bp (GenBank accession number: KT364526). The contents of A, T, C, and G in the mitochondrial genome were found to be 30.64%, 25.29%, 30.81% and 13.26%, respectively. The complete mitochondrial genome of the P. colchicus is a typical structure, including 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 1 control region (D-loop region). This complete mitochondrial genome sequence provides essential information in understanding phylogenetic relationships among Galliformes mitochondrial genomes.

A problem with problem solving: motivational traits, but not cognition, predict success on novel operant foraging tasks

Rates of innovative foraging behaviours and success on problem-solving tasks are often used to assay differences in cognition, both within and across species. Yet the cognitive features of some problem-solving tasks can be unclear. As such, explanations that attribute cognitive mechanisms to individual variation in problem-solving performance have revealed conflicting results. We investigated individual consistency in problem-solving performances in captive-reared pheasant chicks, Phasianus colchicus, and addressed whether success depends on cognitive processes, such as trial-and-error associative learning, or whether performances may be driven solely via noncognitive motivational mechanisms, revealed through subjects' willingness to approach, engage with and persist in their interactions with an apparatus, or via physiological traits such as body condition. While subjects' participation and success were consistent within the same problems and across similar tasks, their performances were inconsistent across different types of task. Moreover, subjects' latencies to approach each test apparatus and their attempts to access the reward were not repeatable across trials. Successful individuals did not improve their performances with experience, nor were they consistent in their techniques in repeated presentations of a task. However, individuals that were highly motivated to enter the experimental chamber were more likely to participate. Successful individuals were also faster to approach each test apparatus and more persistent in their attempts to solve the tasks than unsuccessful individuals. Our findings therefore suggest that individual differences in problem-solving success can arise from inherent motivational differences alone and hence be achieved without inferring more complex cognitive processes.

Relative sensitivities among avian species to individual and mixtures of aryl hydrocarbon receptor-active compounds.

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (DLCs) are potent toxicants to most vertebrates. Sensitivities to DLCs vary among species. In the present study, the sensitivities of avian species (chicken [Gallus gallus], ring-necked pheasant [Phasianus colchicus], and Japanese quail [Coturnix japonica]) to some polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) were determined by using species-specific, in vitro, transactivation assays based on a luciferase reporter gene under control of species-specific aryl hydrocarbon receptors. In ring-necked pheasant and Japanese quail, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) was not the most potent inducer of toxic effects. Especially for Japanese quail, the relative potency values of most of 9 PCDD/Fs tested were greater than for TCDD. The rank order of avian species sensitivities to DLCs was chicken > ring-necked pheasant > Japanese quail. Effects of binary mixtures of TCDD, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran, and 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran were strictly additive. Moreover, we also found that the primary DLCs that were responsible for most of the potency of the DLC mixtures can be deduced by using ordination in a multidimensional space defined by the avian species sensitivities. Overall, the relative potency and the species sensitivities of these chemicals could guide risk assessments to wild species when exposure to mixtures of DLCs in the environment.

Density-dependent regulation of fecundity in Syngamus trachea infrapopulations in semi-naturally occurring ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and wild Carrion Crows (Corvus corone).

Previous work has highlighted increased opportunities for the transmission of Syngamus trachea within pheasant release pens, due in part to high levels of environmental contamination around communal areas. Despite this, the distribution of adult worms within their definitive hosts is not significantly different from predicted distributions under Taylor's power law. Therefore, density-dependent processes are probably acting to regulate S. trachea population dynamics. Patterns of nematode fecundity were investigated in a semi-naturally occurring population of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and a wild population of carrion crows (Corvus carone). Worm length was a reliable indicator of nematode fecundity, and a negative association between mean worm length and mean worm burden was identified within both the species. The stunting of worms at greater parasite densities was present in both immunologically naïve and previously exposed pheasants, so is unlikely to be a function of age-dependent acquired immunity. Interestingly, the effect of parasite crowding in the crow population explained more of the variation in mean worm length, apparently driven by a greater mean worm burden when compared with pheasants. The findings of the present study suggest that fecundity is a function of parasite density, i.e. parasite-mediated competition and not host-mediated heterogeneities in immunocompetence.

Surveillance for Pasteurella multocida in Ring-Necked Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) After an Outbreak of Avian Cholera and Apparently Successful Antibiotic Treatment.

Avian cholera is a significant disease of domestic and wild birds caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (PM). In poultry, a major source of PM infection is chronic carriers, domestic birds that have become infected and recovered or had subclinical infections. Although outbreaks of avian cholera in ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) have been reported, the potential for chronic carriers is unknown. To address this, we conducted surveillance for PM in a flock of captive ring-necked pheasants after an outbreak of avian cholera that responded positively to antibiotic treatment based on resolution of morbidity and mortality. At approximately 1 mo after antibiotic treatment, oropharyngeal swabs were collected from 300 pheasants (out of a total population of ~2300) in a single winter holding pen. All samples were tested for PM through routine aerobic bacterial culture, but none of the samples were positive. In addition, there were no additional outbreaks within this infected pen over the subsequent months. These data provide preliminary evidence to suggest that pheasants that respond to antibiotic therapy may be less likely to become chronic carriers of PM than other poultry species, such as chickens (Gallus domesticus). However, due to marked phenotypic and biologic differences between PM strains, additional studies are needed to further support or refute these findings and better understand avian cholera in this species.

Multiple behavioural, morphological and cognitive developmental changes arise from a single alteration to early life spatial environment, resulting in fitness consequences for released pheasants.

Subtle variations in early rearing environment influence morphological, cognitive and behavioural processes that together impact on adult fitness. We manipulated habitat complexity experienced by young pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in their first seven weeks, adding a third accessible dimension by placing elevated perches in their rearing pens mimicking natural variation in habitat complexity. This simple manipulation provoked an interrelated suite of morphological, cognitive and behavioural changes, culminating in decreased wild mortality of birds from complex habitats compared with controls. Three mechanisms contribute to this: Pheasants reared with perches had a morphology which could enable them to fly to the higher branches and cope with prolonged roosting. They had a higher propensity to roost off the ground at night in the wild. More generally, these birds had more accurate spatial memory. Consequently, birds were at a reduced risk of terrestrial predation. The fitness consequences of variation in early rearing on behavioural development are rarely studied in the wild but we show that this is necessary because the effects can be broad ranging and not simple, depending on a complex interplay of behavioural, cognitive and morphological elements, even when effects that the treatments provoke are relatively short term and plastic.

Geography and Timing of Cases of Eastern Equine Encephalitis in New York State from 1992 to 2012.

In New York State (NYS), Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) was first reported in a human in 1971, in horses in 1970, and in pheasants in 1952. Following work for the interval from 1970 to 1991, we identified cases in vertebrates from 1992 to 2012, through a passive surveillance system involving veterinarians in clinical practice, county health departments, and the Departments of Agriculture and Markets, Environmental Conservation, and Health, of the State of New York. During an 11-year hiatus, from 1992 to 2002, no case in any vertebrate was observed. In a re-emergence, from 2003 to 2012, disease occurred in 12 counties, including 7 counties where disease had never been documented. Vertebrate cases included 4 cases in humans and 77 nonhuman occurrences; in 58 horses, Equus ferus caballus L.; 2 deer, Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann; 6 dogs, Canis familiaris; 10 birds; and 1 flock of pheasants, Phasianus colchicus L. These were the first reported cases in NYS in white-tailed deer, the domestic dog, and in five species of birds: American crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm; American goldfinch, Carduelis tristis L.; bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus L.; blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata (L.); and red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicensis Gmelin. One crow was dually infected with EEE virus and West Nile virus. The northern, southern, and southeastern borders of the state were newly affected. The geographic area, time periods, and vertebrate species with risk of EEE disease expanded from 1992 to 2012.

Intestinal spirochaetes (Brachyspira species) in pheasants in Great Britain

AVIAN intestinal spirochaetosis (AIS) is characterised by colonisation of the caecum of birds with spirochaetes of the genus Brachyspira (formerly Serpulina ). In chickens the effects of colonisation vary from...

Cryptosporidium infections of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) from an intensive artificial breeding programme in the Czech Republic.

From July to November 2012, preliminary coprological examinations were carried out on 85 pooled faecal samples of different aged ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) (hatches from May until July) from an intensive artificial breeding programme in the Czech Republic. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in 12 samples (14.1%) of ages >12weeks (August-September). These results were supported by findings of Cryptosporidium baileyi and Cryptosporidium meleagridis oocysts in intestinal, or cloacal contents, and/or the bursa of Fabricius in 9 from 36 examined dead pheasants (prevalence 25%). We describe in detail the various age groups of pheasants after hatching and present graphically the overall results of coprological examinations, showing pathways of infection of C. baileyi and C. meleagridis during the full rearing seasons of 2013 and 2014. We found very similar mean proportions of Cryptosporidium-positive samples over the entire 2013 period in pheasantry (173 pooled samples tested, 25 positive, 14.5%) and 2014 (238 samples tested, 43 positive, 18.1%). All tests were verified as being Cryptosporidium positive in 9 from 219 (prevalence 4.1%) and 4 from 168 (prevalence 2.4%) post-mortem examinations. Significantly, C. baileyi was found more frequently in faeces, with positivities ranging from 11.1 to 100% (4->16-week-old pheasants). Oocysts of C. meleagridis were detected at ages 6->15weeks ranging from 7.1 to 100% in faeces during the rearing seasons. The burdens of C. baileyi (7 of 14 and 10 of 16) and C. meleagridis (5 of 14 and 7 of 16) for each year, in monitored brooder houses, flight pens and spread across all open areas were recorded. Oocysts of C. baileyi and C. meleagridis obtained from this study, and Cryptosporidium galli (obtained in another aviary from 36-week-old pheasants), were sequenced, and we characterized the highly variable 60-kDa glycoprotein gene of C. meleagridis. These results highlight the real risk of transmission of Cryptosporidium to susceptible wild birds and other potential hosts after termination of rearing and release.

Changes in growth performance and body and carcass composition of common pheasants following three generations of selection for higher 7-week bodyweight

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of selection of common pheasants for a higher 7-week bodyweight (BW) over three generations on growth performance and composition of body and carcass under intensive rearing. A total of 160 chicks of the selected (S) and the control (C) lines (n = 80, respectively), were used in the experiment. At the end of the experiment (100 days), pheasants of the S line achieved an increase of 9.2% in the average BW compared with those of the C line. The feed conversion ratio over the 100-day period was 5.92 and 5.51 g/g in the S and C lines, respectively. After slaughter, pheasants of the S line showed significantly higher weights of the carcass, legs, skinless legs, neck, heart and liver than those of the C line. The direct positive selection for the 7-week BW in pheasants resulted in significant decreases in carcass dressing-out percentages and the proportion of breast muscle, legs, skinless legs and leg muscles to pre-slaughter BW; only a relative proportion of the heart was higher in the S line than that in the C line (P < 0.01).

Complete mitochondrial genome of the Mongolia pheasant, Phasianus colchicus kiangsuensis (Galliformes, Phasianidae, Phasianus)

The pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is raised by commercial farms in most parts of China because of special fleshy flavour. In the study, complete mitochondrial genome of the Mongolia pheasant was sequenced by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as well as the primer walking sequence method. The entire mitochondrial genome of Mongolia pheasant was 16,673 bp in length, gene composition and arrangement conformed to most bird, which contained the typical structure of 22 tRNAs, 2 rRNAs, 13 protein-coding genes and a non-coding region. The phylogenetic tree of 20 Phasianidaes showed that Mongolia pheasant had close relationship to ring-necked pheasant. Our complete mitochondrial genome sequence will be useful phylogenetics, and be available as basic data for the breeding and genetics.

Outbreak of Listeria Monocytogenes in Pheasants

Listeria monocytogenes is capable of infecting almost all animals. However, outbreaks of listeriosis are infrequent in birds. This report describes an outbreak of listeriosis in a small pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) breeder farm with more than 2,000 pheasants from Hubei province of the People's Republic of China. The affected flock consisted of adult and young birds. Approximately 300 young birds and a few adult birds were found dead within a few days of the onset of clinical signs. Twenty-five dead birds were collected for further examination. Histopathological lesions in the visceral organs were characterized by monocyte infiltration and proliferation. Localized encephalitis and meningitis were detected in the brains of dead birds. Gram-positive organisms were observed in heart blood smear, liver, and brain impression smears. The organisms were isolated from fresh liver and were identified as L. monocytogenes serotype 4b based on multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and hlyA gene sequence analysis. This is the first report describing outbreak of listeriosis in pheasant flock.

Tick-borne zoonotic pathogens in birds in Guangxi, Southwest China.

BackgroundWildlife is an important natural reservoir of many tick-borne pathogens. These agents have an impact on the health of humans and other animals throughout the world. This study was conducted to determine whether and what species of tick-borne agents had infected wild birds collected from Guangxi, in southwest China.FindingsLiver samples obtained from wild birds were tested for the presence of tick-borne pathogens by PCR assays and sequencing of the flagellin and 16S rRNA genes. Borrelia garinii was detected in Eurasian collared doves (2/57, 3.5 %) from among the 95 wild birds. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected in Eurasian collared doves (2/57, 3.5 %) and Eurasian eagle owls (2/13, 15.4 %). Ehrlichia chaffeensis and a potential novel Anaplasma sp. were identified in Common pheasant (1/12, 8.3 %). These results suggest the involvement of birds in the cycle of tick-borne diseases. To our knowledge, this is the first study to document infection of birds with B. garinii, A. phagocytophilum, E. chaffeensis and the novel Anaplasma sp. in China.ConclusionsTick-borne zoonotic bacteria B. garinii, A. phagocytophilum and E. chaffeensis, and a potential novel Anaplasma sp., were identified in wild birds in southwest China. The presence of these agents in birds increases the potential spread over long distances and the risk of transmission of infection from birds to new hosts, including humans.

Lipid and protein quality of common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) reared in semi-extensive conditions

Common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is a species with potential to produce high quality meat. Rearing these birds in semi-extensive regime for other purposes than just for hunting has drawn producers’ attention. This study aimed to evaluate the lipid and protein composition of breast and leg meat from male and female pheasant. Meat portions exhibited significant differences between total lipid (1.3 and 3.5g/100g), total cholesterol contents (0.5 and 0.57mg/g), fatty acids profile, protein content (89 and 82% dry weight) and amino acids profile, not related with sex. The amino acids content tended to be slightly higher in leg, being comparable to farmed pheasants. Lysine was the prevailing essential amino acid (EAA) in both portions, which are also an exceptional arginine source. Pheasant meat is an interesting source of high quality lean protein, being a healthier alternative to other frequently consumed meats.

A combined MR and CT study for precise quantitative analysis of the avian brain.

Brain size is widely used as a measure of behavioural complexity and sensory-locomotive capacity in avians but has largely relied upon laborious dissections, endoneurocranial tissue displacement, and physical measurement to derive comparative volumes. As an alternative, we present a new precise calculation method based upon coupled magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and computed tomography (CT). Our approach utilizes a novel interactive Fakir probe cross-referenced with an automated CT protocol to efficiently generate total volumes and surface areas of the brain tissue and endoneurocranial space, as well as the discrete cephalic compartments. We also complemented our procedures by using sodium polytungstate (SPT) as a contrast agent. This greatly enhanced CT applications but did not degrade MR quality and is therefore practical for virtual brain tissue reconstructions employing multiple imaging modalities. To demonstrate our technique, we visualized sex-based brain size differentiation in a sample set of Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). This revealed no significant variance in relative volume or surface areas of the primary brain regions. Rather, a trend towards isometric enlargement of the total brain and endoneurocranial space was evidenced in males versus females, thus advocating a non-differential sexually dimorphic pattern of brain size increase amongst these facultatively flying birds.

Bagaza virus is pathogenic and transmitted by direct contact in experimentally infected partridges, but is not infectious in house sparrows and adult mice

Bagaza virus (BAGV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus belonging to the Ntaya serocomplex. In 2010, a disease outbreak was reported in Cádiz (Southern Spain) affecting game birds (red-legged partridges and common pheasants). In this work, red-legged partridges were inoculated experimentally with infectious BAGV isolated from this outbreak in order to make a complete clinical and analytical assessment of the disease caused by the pathogen in this species. Viral load (by real-time RT-PCR) in blood, oral and cloacal swabs, and feathers, and neutralizing antibody titres (by VNT) were measured. In order to determine direct contact transmission, non-inoculated partridges were caged together with the inoculated ones. To assess infectiousness in other species, house sparrows and mice were also inoculated with the virus. All the inoculated partridges were clinically affected, and 30% of them died. All the infected individuals lost weight, with larger losses being recorded in females. Conversely, no mortality or disease symptoms were observed in the sparrows or mice. Remarkably, all the contact partridges acquired the infection by direct (non-vectored) transmission. This study confirms that the red-legged partridge is a susceptible host for BAGV infection, and that this pathogen is transmitted by direct contact. Long-lasting viral loads detected in calami of immature feathers demonstrate that feather sampling could be a useful strategy in active surveillance programs for early detection of BAGV.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13567-015-0233-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Bird quality, origin and predation level affect survival and reproduction of translocated common pheasants Phasianus colchicus

We investigated the survival and breeding success of common pheasants Phasianus colchicus of two origins and in two predator densities. We translocated hand‐reared and wild pheasant hens to southern Finland (60°N, 24°E) and hand‐reared ones to central Finland (63°N, 27°E). Both groups of birds were treated similarly before release and translocated to areas with no local pheasant populations. Both areas appeared similar, the only major difference being the amount of predators. The red fox Vulpes vulpes was the major predator of pheasants present in the southern study, where it was abundant, whereas it was almost non‐existant in central Finland. In accordance with earlier studies, the wild birds survived much better than the hand‐reared ones in the area with a high red fox density. The hand‐reared birds located in the low red fox density area survived better than the hens in the area of high red fox density. However, no significant difference was observed in the survival of the hand‐reared birds in the low fox density area and wild birds in the high fox density area. Interestingly, after the first two weeks, the survival of pheasants in different groups was equal. We additionally found no significant differences between the bird‐groups in terms of hatching success when comparing hens that managed to initiate nesting. No difference was also observed between the hand‐reared birds in the low fox density area and the wild in the high fox density area in brood survival to the age of six weeks. We conclude that even hand‐reared pheasants can succeed in brood production in an area with low fox densities. We furthermore suggest that pheasants that survive the two first weeks after translocation have good chances of producing a brood whether they are wild or hand‐reared.

Characteristic and susceptibility to enterocins of enterococci in pheasants possessing virulence factor genes.

With an increasing number of pheasants as gamebirds being reared each year, these species are becoming a more prominent part of the workload of many veterinary practices. Only limited information can be found concerning the microflora of common pheasants. A significant part of the obligate microflora consists of lactic acid bacteria, including enterococci. In this study, faeces were sampled from 60 pheasants aged 16-17 weeks. Enterococcal counts reached 5.48±1.9 (log10) CFU/g. Strains (17) were taxonomically classified to the genus Enterococcus using the Maldi-Tof identification system; they were allotted to the species E. hirae (58.8%), E. faecium (23.5%) and E. faecalis (17.7%) by highly probable species identification or by secure genus identification/probable species identication. Species allocation was also confirmed using conventional biochemical tests. Most strains formed β-hemolysis. Gelatinase active phenotype was found in three E. faecalis strains. Enterococci were β-glucuronidase negative, mostly trypsin negative with slight or moderate production of α-chymotrypsin. EH52b and EF42 strains possessed the highest potential for pathogenicity. Average value of lactic acid was 1.78±0.33 mmo/L. Most strains were tetracycline resistant (82.4%). Polyresistant E. faecalis strains with positive gelatinase phenotype and possessing virulence factor genes confirmed using PCR (gelE, efaAfs, ccf cob, cpd) were sensitive to enterocins (activity 1600-25,600 AU/mL).

Evidence that the conservation reserve program slowed population declines of pheasants on a changing landscape in Nebraska, USA

ABSTRACTNebraska's agricultural landscape underwent dramatic changes during the last half of the 20th century. Since 1986, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) has led to an increase in grassland cover, but pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) populations have been decreasing for decades. We hypothesized that if the CRP positively affected pheasant populations in Nebraska, USA, we should see effects reflected in pheasant population trend data. Thus, we examined one of the longest‐running population time‐series data sets in Nebraska, the rural mail‐carrier survey. We averaged pheasant counts annually over the entire state during 1951–2007. We fit 4 simple demographic models to the statewide population abundance index and used information‐theoretic methods to select the model with the most support. We found strong evidence that a logistic model with a 2‐period decline (transition year of 1986 based on optimization) in carrying capacity described the data better than all other models (e.g., AICc wi = 0.99). This model indicated an annual decline in our population index of approximately 15% until 1986, but then a slower annual decline of approximately 5% after 1986. The transition year (1986) corresponded with the date of implementation of the CRP. No other known effect occurred near the transition year and there is no evidence that other potential factors (e.g., disease, changes in predator communities) contributed to large‐scale population declines during our study. The introduction of the CRP may have positively affected pheasant populations, but the effects are so far insufficient to reverse the decline of pheasants in Nebraska. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.