Resplendent Quetzal Research Articles

Feelings, conflicts, and use: wildlife-human interactions in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

ABSTRACT Human activities are one of the most critical threats to wildlife. Therefore, understanding human-wildlife interactions is key to designing and applying sound conservation strategies. We identified wild animals relevant for people in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, southern Mexico considering four types of interactions: Use, affect (either positive or negative), and conflict. Twenty-eight workshops and 670 wildlife-human experiences with 58 taxa were recorded. The most relevant species were Odocoileus virginianus, Tapirus bairdii, Panthera onca, Pharomachrus mocinno, and Bothriechis bicolor. Positive affect was the most frequent interaction reported (46%), followed by use (20%), conflict (17%), and negative affect (16%). Negative affect and conflicts were mainly related to fear and damage by native predators. Species use was relatively infrequent (20%). We propose that conservation strategies be directed according to the species and their specific interactions.

Abundance of the Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno (Trogoniformes, Trogonidae) in the tourist sector of a cloud forest reserve

The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) exhibits characteristics that are common to species prone to extinction, such as occurring at low densities, presenting strict ecological requirements, and inhabiting locations with high rates of degradation. The lack of data on the abundance of threatened species makes it difficult to make management decisions and does not allow to know trends over time, which is essential for conservation in their distribution areas. The abundance and density of the Resplendent Quetzal was estimated from audio/visual detections analyzed with distance sampling techniques. Data was collected in the public use sector of La Tigra National Park, a reserve of virgin and secondary growth cloud forest in Honduras, Central America. A populationN= 136 was found with a density of 40 quetzals per km2. There are no systematic studies on the population size and density of the species for this site since 1979, in which a population of 145 quetzals was reported. The estimation of the Resplendent Quetzal population for the total area of the park is a main research priority, which will make it possible to evaluate the viability of the species and the establishment of a new baseline for conservation policies and environmental education efforts in the area of influence.

Acoustic competition within a tropical bird community: the case of the Resplendent QuetzalPharomachrus mocinnoin Guatemala

ABSTRACTThe structure of ecological communities is thought to be mainly driven by competition processes between species. One special case of resource shaping community dynamics is the acoustic space. However, the acoustic communities have been rarely described for tropical birds. Here, we aimed at estimating acoustic competition between the iconic speciesPharomachrus mocinnoand the other bird species occupying the same habitat. An acoustic survey was conducted in a cloud forest in Guatemala for 17 days in six simultaneous recording sites. All species occurring in the same frequency bandwidth were identified, and the acoustic overlapping betweenP. mocinnoand these species was estimated. Eighteen species were identified as acoustic competitors. Ecological traits and phylogenetic distance were defined for all species. The rate of acoustic competition betweenP. mocinnoand other species was related to different ecological traits and competition for resources. The acoustic overlap was high with species competing for similar food resources and phylogenetically close species and low with predator species and phylogenetically distant species. These unique observations provide new behavioural and ecological information that might be useful for the knowledge of this species and the cloud forest.

Vocalisation of the rare and flagship species Pharomachrus mocinno (Aves: Trogonidae): implications for its taxonomy, evolution and conservation

ABSTRACT The Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno is a rare Neotropical bird included in the IUCN red list as Near Threatened. Fragmentation of its habitat, the cloud forest, is considered as the principal threat. Two subspecies are currently recognised but genetic and morphometric studies suggested they could be considered as full species. We assessed whether male vocalisation would support a species delimitation hypothesis. We recorded in the field and downloaded from sound archives vocalisation of 57 individuals from 30 different localities distributed in 11 countries. We estimated the acoustic differences of all the Pharomachrus taxa with multivariate analyses and machine learning techniques. Our results show vocal differences between P. m. mocinno and P. m. costaricensis that could have a molecular basis, potentially due to genetic drift developed during the more than three million years of separation of P. m. mocinno (from Mexico to Nicaragua) and P. m. costaricensis (Costa Rica and Panama). We therefore suggest that P. mocinno could potentially be divided into two species. A possible separation of these taxa into two species could have important consequences for the conservation status of the Resplendent Quetzals, and redirect conservation efforts for these taxa.

Ecology, endemism, and conservation status of birds that collide with glass windows in Monteverde, Costa Rica

Worldwide, billions of birds die annually due to window collisions. Nevertheless, few accounts document bird-window collisions in the Neotropics. In this study, we document species that collided with windows in Monteverde, Costa Rica, and describe their ecological and conservation status. We gathered information from different sources, including data from museum records and accounts by Monteverde residents who participated as “citizen scientists” between May 2014 and December 2017. We conducted carcass searches between March 2015 and February 2016. We classified window-strike species by migratory, forest dependence, trophic guild, weight, abundance, conservation, and endemism status. We registered 103 species striking windows in Monteverde, which includes 98 of 267 species known to occur in three life zones in Monteverde and five not registered in the area. Window strike casualties’ frequencies differed by species, trophic guild and migratory status. Most window victims were residents, small, insectivorous, considered common or fairly common, with declining population trends. The families with the most species represented were Parulidae (14 spp.), Trochilidae (13 spp.), Turdidae (10 spp.), and Tyrannidae (9 spp.). Most species were passerines (Order Passeriformes) (71 spp.). No hawks or vultures were found colliding with buildings. The three species most commonly killed by windows were frugivores: Swainson’s Thrush (Catharus ustulatus), Northern Emerald-Toucanet (Aulacorhynchus prasinus), and Black-faced Solitaire (Myadestes melanops). Among window-kills were five species whose status on the IUCN Red List are Near Threatened and one Vulnerable, including the Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) and the Three-wattled Bellbird (Procnias tricarunculatus). Six species are listed as in danger of extinction and four are listed as species with reduced populations by the National System of Conservation Areas for Costa Rica (SINAC). 12 endemic species are strike casualties. The premontane wet forest is the life zone where more species were found (n=64 spp.), followed by the premontane moist forest (n = 49 spp.) and the lower montane wet forest (n = 31 spp.). These findings demonstrate the urgent need for conservation measures to mitigate bird mortality due to window collisions. Promoting use of methods to protect birds from windows should be an important goal for this IBA and the rest of Costa Rica. We also recommend collecting data in order to increase understanding about bird window collisions.

73 Artificial incubation of resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno mocinno) eggs

The scientific literature lacks information regarding the incubation conditions and hatching success of the resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno mocinno). Jesús Estudillo López, founder of the El Nido aviary, was the first to succeed with quetzal reproduction in captivity. Quetzals do not typically reproduce in captivity and the aim of this study was to increase fecundity through artificial incubation. Over a 3-year period (Yr1, Yr2, and Yr3), data about quetzal eggs, artificial incubation, and diet were recorded for 3 quetzal pairs (ranging from ~4-12 years old, with females ~4-8 years old). Eggs were manually collected from artificial nests and egg substitution was utilised. Quetzals can continue laying eggs up to 8 times with egg substitution. Eggs were weighed and placed into an 80W incubator (INCA 200®, DMP Engineering, Tel Aviv, Israel) with an automatic egg turner. The eggs were incubated for 17 to 18 days at 37.2 to 37.6°C with a relative humidity of 20 to 40%. Fisher’s exact test (2-tailed, α=0.05) was used for statistical analyses comparing the numbers of eggs hatched, infertile eggs, and eggs experiencing embryonic death for the study period. Eggs were candled on Day 3 to determine fertility by the presence of a darker area with vasculogenesis. Hatchability (%) was determined by dividing the total number of offspring hatched by the total number of eggs deemed fertile after candling. All of the eggs that did not hatch were opened at the end of the incubation period to detect early embryo death. A total of 27 quetzal eggs [mean weight (g)=17.3, s.d.=1.2] were incubated over 3 years, of which 10 (~37%) hatched, with 3 (30%) fledging and surviving to adulthood. Six of the eggs (~22%) suffered embryonic mortality during incubation, whereas 11 eggs were infertile (~41%). Hatchability over the study period was 62.5% (10/16). During Yr1 and Yr2 two eggs hatched each year, and compared with the 6 eggs that hatched in Yr3, a noteworthy but not significant difference was observed (Yr1v. Yr2, P=1; Yr1v. Yr3, P=0.188; Yr2v. Yr3, P=0.170). Embryonic death of the eggs was also not significantly different between the years (Yr1v. Yr2, P=1; Yr1v. Yr3, P=0.314; Yr2v. Yr3, P=0.303). However, the number of infertile eggs was significantly different between Yr1v. Yr3 (P=0.007) and Yr2v. Yr3 (P=0.003), but not Yr1v. Yr2 (P=1). During Yr1 and Yr2 the diet consisted of fruit (aguacatillo, banana, and papaya) and a mouse pup once a week. In Yr3 the diet was modified to include blueberry and a commercial food for Tucans (Mazuri®; https://www.mazuri.com/) and a new quetzal pair was added. The modified diet will continue to be used given that there were fewer infertile eggs. However, future research will need to be conducted to elucidate which variables specifically contribute to better hatching results. The results of this study demonstrate an assisted reproductive technique for quetzals that can benefit conservation efforts for this species.

Morphometric differentiation between subspecies of Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno mocinnoandP. m. costaricensis) based on male uppertail-coverts

Summary. Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno is endemic to montane cloud forests of Middle America. Disjunct populations in the highlands north (southern Mexico and northern Central America) and south of the lowlands of Nicaragua (Costa Rica and Panama) have been recognised subspecifically by several authorities (e.g. Ridgway 1911, Cory 1919, Dickinson & Remsen 2013, Gill & Donsker 2017), but have also been suggested to merit species status (Solorzano & Oyama 2010). We present morphometric differences in the elongated uppertailcoverts of adult males. We analysed width and length of the uppertail-coverts of 73 adult male specimens in European ornithological collections. Mean width and mean length of the uppertail-coverts were significantly greater in northern P. m. mocinno compared to southern P. m. costaricensis. Our data support a previously published proposal to treat the two taxa as species based on molecular and other morphological data.

Birds of a Feather: Exploring the Acquisition of Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) Tail Coverts in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

The long, iridescent, feathers of the quetzal bird have been recognized as one of the most striking and prevalent appendages of costume from Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, particularly in the region inhabited by the ancient Maya— where quetzal feathers were coveted as high-status goods. This region is home to the Pharomachrus mocinno mocinno, one of two subspecies of Resplendent Quetzal that inhabit Montane Evergreen Forests throughout Central America. Their apprehensive disposition and placid behaviour, combined with their remote environment, made them rare and elusive birds. This rarity undoubtedly impacted the acquisition of quetzal feathers in Pre-Columbian times, and it was likely that knowledge, skill, and planning were necessary to ensure they did not become a scarce resource. This paper offers an insight into the breeding and nesting behaviours of the Pharomachrus mocinno and how these may have affected hunting or collecting strategies of feathers by the ancient Maya.

Fascinating Birds & Frogs

Weird Birds . By Chris Earley. 2014. Firefly Books. (ISBN 9781770852969). 64 pp. Paperback with full color photographs. $9.95. Weird Frogs . By Chris Earley. 2014. Firefly Books. (ISBN 9781770853614). 64 pp. Paperback with full color photographs. $9.95. Weird Birds and Weird Frogs by Chris Earley are a delightful introduction to some weird and wild avian and amphibian creatures. Weird Birds features beautiful full-color photographs of 59 birds, including the very serious Eurasian Eagle-Owl and the regal Resplendent Quetzal. Weird Frogs includes …

Birds of a high-altitude cloud forest in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala

The Northern Central American Highlands have been recognized as endemic bird area, but little is known about bird communities in Guatemalan cloud forests. From 1997 to 2001 a total of 142 bird species were recorded between 2000 and 2400 masl in cloud forest and agricultural clearings on Montaña Caquipec (Alta Verapaz, Guatemala). The bird community is described based on line transect counts within the forest. Pooling census data from undisturbed and disturbed forest, the Gray-breasted Wood-Wren (Henicorhina leucophrys) was found to be the most abundant species, followed in descending order by the Common Bush-Tanager (Chlorospingus ophthalmicus), the Paltry Tyrannulet (Zimmerius vilissimus), the Yellowish Flycatcher (Empidonax flavescens), the Ruddy-capped Nightingale-Thrush (Catharus frantzi), and the Amethyst-throated Hummingbird (Lampornis amethystinus). Bird communities in undisturbed and disturbed forest were found to be similar (Serensen similarity index 0.85), indicating low human impact. Of all recorded species, approximately 27% were Nearctic-Neotropical migratory birds. The most abundant one was the Wilson's Warbler (Wilsonia pusilla). The Montaña Caquipec is an important area for bird conservation, which is indicated by the presence of four species listed in the IUCN Red List (Highland Guan Penelopina nigra, Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno, Pink-headed Warbler Ergaticus versicolor, Golden-cheeked Warbler Dendroica chrysoparia), and 42 Mesoamerican endemics, of which 14 species are endemic to the Central American Highlands. The results presented here will be useful as baseline data for a long-term monitoring.

The first records of quill mites of the family Syringophilidae (Acariformes: Prostigmata: Cheyletoidea) from trogoniform birds (Aves: Trogoniformes).

Two new species of quill mites of the family Syringophilidae parasitising trogoniform birds (Trogoniformes: Trogonidae) are described: Syringophiloidus quetzali sp. nov. from Pharomachrus mocinno Llave and Ph. antisianus (Orbigny); and Syringophilopsis trogoni sp. nov. from Trogon citreolus Gould and T. melanocephalus Gould. These findings are the first records of syringophilids associated with trogoniform birds.

Analysis of Nest Sites of the Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno): Relationship between Nest and Snag Heights

Abstract The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is of particular conservation concern because of its iconic status in Central American culture. This species is a secondary cavity nester and modifies abandoned woodpecker nest sites in dead tree trunks (i.e., snags). We used 11 historical nest sites, reported in 1969, from Atitlan, Guatemala and 10 recent nest sites from San Gerardo de Dota, Costa Rica to examine if a relationship exists between nest and snag height. There were significant differences between Costa Rica and Guatemala in both nest height (6.3 vs. 10 m, respectively; t-test14 = −2.49, P = 0.042) and snag height (8.1 vs. 14.0 m, respectively; t-test13 = −2.39, P = 0.033). There was no difference in nest heights relative to snag heights for Costa Rica (0.76) and Guatemala (0.77; t-test17 = −0.20, P = 0.84). One aspect of conservation efforts for this species has been placement of nest boxes to provide nesting sites for additional pairs. Our results provide a better understan...

Dos registros recientes del quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) en las Montañas del Este de Chiapas

El quetzal es un símbolo de la conservación de los bosques de niebla siempreverdes de Mesoamérica. Aquí, presentamos la descripción de dos registros obtenidos en las Montañas del Este de Chiapas, durante la estación reproductiva (abril) y no-reproductiva (agosto) de 2008. En la zona en donde se registraron estos quetzales ocurre una intensa pérdida forestal, por lo que sus hábitats reproductivo y no-reproductivo podrían estar en peligro de desaparecer en esta región.

Morphometric and molecular differentiation between quetzal subspecies of Pharomachrus mocinno (Trogoniformes: Trogonidae)

The resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is an endemic Mesoamerican bird species of conservation concern. Within this species, the subspecies P. m. costaricensis and P. m. mocinno, have been recognized by apparent morphometric differences; however, presently there is no sufficient data for confirmation. We analyzed eight morphometric attributes of the body from 41 quetzals: body length, tarsus and cord wing, as well as the length, wide and depth of the bill, body weight; and in the case of the males, the length of the long upper-tail cover feathers. We used multivariate analyses to discriminate morphometric differences between subspecies and contrasted each morphometric attribute between and within subspecies with paired non-parametric Wilcoxon test. In order to review the intraspecific taxonomic status of this bird, we added phylogenetic analysis, and genetic divergence and differentiation based on nucleotide variations in four sequences of mtDNA. The nucleotide variation was estimated in control region, subunit NDH6, and tRNAGlu and tRNAPhe in 26 quetzals from eight localities distributed in five countries. We estimated the genetic divergence and differentiation between subspecies according to a mutation-drift equilibrium model. We obtained the best mutation nucleotide model following the procedure implemented in model test program. We constructed the phylogenetic relationships between subspecies by maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood using PAUP, as well as with Bayesian statistics. The multivariate analyses showed two different morphometric groups, and individuals clustered according to the subspecies that they belong. The paired comparisons between subspecies showed strong differences in most of the attributes analyzed. Along the four mtDNA sequences, we identified 32 nucleotide positions that have a particular nucleotide according to the quetzals subspecies. The genetic divergence and the differentiation was strong and markedly showed two groups within P. mocinno that corresponded to the quetzals subspecies. The model selected for our data was TVM+G. The three phylogenetic methods here used recovered two clear monophyletic clades corresponding to each subspecies, and evidenced a significant and true partition of P. mocinno species into two different genetic, morphometric and ecologic groups. Additionally, according to our calculations, the gene flow between subspecies is interrupted at least from three million years ago. Thus we propose that P. mocinno be divided in two independent species: P. mocinno (Northern species, from Mexico to Nicaragua) and in P. costaricensis (Southern species, Costa Rica and Panama). This new taxonomic classification of the quetzal subspecies allows us to get well conservation achievements because the evaluation about the kind and magnitude of the threats could be more precise.

Diversidad genética y conservación del quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno en Mesoamérica

In this study, we analyzed the genetic variation of quetzals ( Pharomachrus mocinno ) throughout their geographic distribution to determine conservation targets. This species is found in patchy isolated cloud forests from Mexico to Panama. A multidimensional scaling and UPGMA analysis of a 286 RAPD fragment set resolved 3 genetic groups: cluster 1 (Mexican localities), cluster 2 (Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador) and cluster 3 (Panama). The mean genetic diversity estimated by the Shannon index was 0.38, 0.22 and 0.32, for clusters 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The genetic differentiation among clusters was statistically significant. The highest percentage of genetic variation (70.86%) was found within populations using an AMOVA analysis. Our results suggest that within the quetzal species, there are 3 genetic groups that should be considered as independent conservation targets and included in a global Mesoamerican conservation program.

Wild Costa Rica: the wildlife & landscapes of Costa Rica

The small Central American country of Costa Rica--less than one-eighth the size of California--boasts the highest density of plant and animal species in the world. Its wild and rugged landscapes include dense rainforests where jaguars roam, a volcano that spews rivers of molten lava, and beaches as unspoiled as they were when Christopher Columbus first anchored his ships off the Caribbean coast in 1502. Costa Rica's rich biodiversity is the result of a hugely varied topography that creates a wide range of natural habitats, and of the presence of animals and plants native to both North and South America. In Wild Costa Rica, photographer Adrian Hepworth explores the natural riches of Costa Rica, providing engaging reports from the field and more than 200 stunning color photographs. We learn about Costa Rica's rainforest, cloudforest, and paramo (high, treeless plain); the abundance of plants, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects these habitats support; and the country's network of protected areas--a system of parks, reserves, and refuges that makes up over twenty percent of Costa Rica's land. These areas--including such flagship wildlife-watching locations as Tortuguero and Corcovado--attract more than a million visitors every year. The money generated by responsible eco-tourism is central to the survival of Costa Rica's wild places. Hepworth's photographs show us breathtaking vistas and introduce us to distinctive native wildlife, including the scarlet macaw, the resplendent quetzal, the three-toed sloth, and spider and howler monkeys. Wild Costa Rica gives us a fascinating picture of the most biologically diverse country in the world.

Nesting Behavior and Nestling Care of the Pavonine Quetzal (Pharomachrus pavoninus)

I describe the nesting behavior of the Pavonine Quetzal (Pharomachrus pavoninus) at Los Amigos in the southeastern Peruvian Amazon. I found a single nest cavity 4.2 m above ground in a dead snag in terra firme forest. The cavity contained two pale blue eggs each with a few small brown-buff speckles, of which one hatched. I observed incubation between 18 February and 2 March 2004. Based on an average of 0.7 observation hrs/day, the male appeared to incubate during most of the day from at least 0950 hrs until sunset (near 1745 hrs) when the pair would switch before nightfall. The female appeared to incubate at night and during the early morning. Fifty-six percent of 32 food deliveries observed between 6 and 26 March were tree frogs and 44% were fruits. The nestling fledged on 26 March, 20 days after the first observed food provisioning. The nestling period is estimated to be 21–24 days. The plumage development of the nestling, vocalizations, and other observations are discussed and compared with the Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno).

The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) in the Sierra Yalijux, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala

The Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno is a restricted-range species occurring from Chiapas (Mexico) to Panama, generally at elevations above 1,400 m. P. mocinno is a frugivore that feeds on a variety of fruits. Listed as “Lower Risk/Near Threatened Species” and in CITES Appendix I, P. mocinno is dependent on standing dead and mature trees for breeding holes, which are only formed in primary cloud forest, even if tree stumps occur temporally in secondary growth as remnants of primary cloud forest. A population of P. mocinno in the northernmost Guatemalan mountain range (Chelemha Plot, Sierra Yalijux, Alta Verapaz) was studied in 2002 and compared with a census at the same location in 1988. Between 1988 and 2002, the number of males did not change significantly: a small increase took place from 15 to 18 individuals per 100 ha. The species’ breeding behaviour is linked to the long-term existence of primary forests such as the few remaining in highland Guatemala. Breeding success was proven and at least three juveniles from two breeding pairs were observed until the end of September 2002.

Quetzals Bred in Captivity in Chiapas

Researchers at the Miguel Alvarez del Toro Regional Zoo (ZooMAT), in Chiapas, Mexico, have successfully bred a resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) chick in captivity for the first time. Quet? zals were sacred in Mayan culture; they symbolized freedom, precisely because they would die when caged. Included in Appendix 1 of the CITES convention, the fruiteating quetzal, with its impressive red, blue, and green plumage, is endangered by habitat degradation, hunting, and trafficking. This achievement is the result of many years of research, explains Carlos Guichard, ZooMAT director (Tuxtla, Chiapas). In the 1980s, studies were carried out in the Chiapas mountains to understand the biology and behavior of the quetzal in the wild, he continues. Following this work, the bird's habitat was protected by the estab? lishment of the 100000-ha Triunfo A newly hatched quetzal chick.

CONSERVATION PRIORITIES FOR RESPLENDENT QUETZALS BASED ON ANALYSIS OF MITOCHONDRIAL DNA CONTROL-REGION SEQUENCES

Abstract The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is a threatened bird species classified into two putative subspecies (P. m. mocinno and P. m. costaricensis) and distributed in cloud forests of seven countries in Mesoamerica. Because the birds are rare, tissue samples are difficult to obtain, but we analyzed genetic diversity in 25 quetzals from five countries based on 255 bp of domain I of the control region of mitochondrial DNA. Eight haplotypes were detected. Nucleotide diversity for Mexico (P. m. mocinno: 0.0021) and Panama (P. m. costaricensis: 0.0026) were low, and did not differ from the values estimated for other birds species irrespective of whether they were endangered. A haplotype tree rooted with the Pavonine Quetzal (P. pavoninus) recovered two reciprocally monophyletic clades corresponding to each subspecies, so we propose that each subspecies be considered as an evolutionarily significant unit for conservation planning. A minimum spanning network showed the number of genetic differen...