Academic Pharmacy Research Articles

The future of pharmacy practice research - Perspectives of academics and practitioners from Australia, NZ, United Kingdom, Canada and USA.

Healthcare is under significant pressure with the explosion of long term conditions, shift in worldwide demographics and is evolving through advances in technology. Aligned with this is the changing role of pharmacy from the traditional dispenser of medicines to having (in addition) a more advanced clinical role. This study aimed to understand what the pharmacy practice research agenda might look like from the viewpoint of pharmacy academics and practitioners across five high-income countries. Qualitative methods were used, and thirty one-hour interviews were undertaken with practitioners and academics from five economically advanced countries. These nations have comparable socio-economic status but differing health systems and include; Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States of America. Six key informants were chosen from each country, three academics and three community pharmacists. A general inductive analysis was undertaken to analyse the most common and recurring themes. These themes of research were based around current community pharmacy practice issues and the enablers to changing the profession. Specific areas pharmacy practice could be more involved with included long term health conditions. Some community pharmacists also believed that research into the impact of professional standards and policy change would be beneficial. The findings of this research suggest that current pharmacy practice research methods are sufficient, but need to be used more effectively. Participants identified a wide range of issues within community pharmacy practice. Academics largely focused on how research can be utilised in the community and how to implement findings to ensure sustainability of pharmacy practice research. Issues that community pharmacists would like to research are related to the current practice model, such as allocating time to provide patient-focused services in addition to managing a business.

Perceptions of organizational culture and organizational citizenship by faculty in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy

Objectives(1) Describe perceptions of organizational culture and prevalence of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) among faculty at United States (U.S.) colleges/schools of pharmacy; (2) determine which aspects of those phenomena are strongest and which are most problematic; (3) evaluate the psychometric properties of measures for organizational culture and OCBs in academic pharmacy; and (4) identify any relationships between organizational culture and organizational citizenship among academic pharmacy faculty. MethodsA random sample of 600 U.S. academic pharmacists acquired from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy were distributed an email survey through the use of Qualtrics technology. The procedures closely resembled the Total Design Method advocated to maximize survey response, including use of a pre-notification letter, reminders, and a nominal financial inducement. In addition to demographic questions, the survey employed multiple-item measures of organizational culture and OCBs described previously in the literature and derived from Delphi consensus-building procedures. The analysis plan incorporated use of factor and item analyses to evaluate psychometric properties of the measure and elicit the inherent domains comprising these phenomena, along with descriptive statistics to describe facets of organizational culture and OCBs that were most prevalent. ResultsA total of 177 responses were delivered. Factor analysis of organizational culture revealed a five-factor solution emphasizing achievement orientation, professionalism, stability, supportiveness, and reflectiveness. OCB domains were along the possibility of faculty being virtuous, disrespectful, sportsmanlike, and benevolent/malevolent. Even while multi-faceted and avoiding a simple typological descriptor, academic pharmacy cultures were reportedly healthy. Sportsmanship, while still somewhat commonly observed, was seen less frequently than other behaviors. The measures demonstrated logical, cogent factor structures and excellent internal consistency reliability. ConclusionsPsychometrically well-performing measures were used to assess the multi-faceted organizational culture of academic pharmacy programs and the organizational citizenship behaviors of its constituent faculty. The results can be used to measure these phenomena at individual organizations for benchmarking and to inform future inquiries that can assist with development of strategies that impact academic worklife and outcomes.

Pharmacy Practice and Education in Romania.

The PHARMINE (“Pharmacy Education in Europe”) project examined the organisation of pharmacy practice and education in the European Union (EU). An electronic survey was sent out to representatives of different sectors (community, hospital, industrial pharmacists, university staff, and students) in each individual EU member state. This paper presents the results of the PHARMINE survey on pharmacy practice and education in Romania. In the light of this data we examine to what extent harmonisation of practice and education with EU norms has occurred, whether this has promoted mobility of pharmacy professionals, academics and students, and what impact it has had on healthcare in Romania. The survey reveals the substantial changes in Romanian pharmacy practice and education since the 1989 change in government and Romania joining the EU in 2007. Romania remains, however, a poor country with expenditure on healthcare less than one-third of the EU average. This factor also impacts pharmacy practice. Although practice seems aligned with EU norms, this masks the substantial imbalance between the situation in the richer capital, Bucharest, and that of the poorer countryside. Harmonisation to EU norms in pharmacy education has not promoted student exchange and mobility but, rather, a brain drain in pharmaceutical graduates to other EU countries. Specialisation in industrial practice has been lost since 1989 with pharmacists being replaced by chemists. In hospitals the hospital pharmacist is being replaced by the clinical pharmacist.

Components of a Measure to Describe Organizational Culture in Academic Pharmacy

Objective. To develop a measure of organizational culture in academic pharmacy and identify characteristics of an academic pharmacy program that would be impactful for internal (eg, students, employees) and external (eg, preceptors, practitioners) clients of the program. Methods. A three-round Delphi procedure of 24 panelists from pharmacy schools in the U.S. and Canada generated items based on the Organizational Culture Profile (OCP), which were then evaluated and refined for inclusion in subsequent rounds. Items were assessed for appropriateness and impact. Results. The panel produced 35 items across six domains that measured organizational culture in academic pharmacy: competitiveness, performance orientation, social responsibility, innovation, emphasis on collegial support, and stability. Conclusion. The items generated require testing for validation and reliability in a large sample to finalize this measure of organizational culture.

Help! Dean Drowning in Survey Requests

Frequently, if not weekly, I receive an email from a pharmacy faculty member, resident, or student who is conducting survey research and is requesting that I complete the survey, forward it to the appropriate faculty member to complete, or forward it to students. Scholarly inquiry is embedded in our

Clinical pharmacy academic career transitions: Viewpoints from the field Part 2: Understanding and balancing the distribution of effort

IntroductionThe six authors of this commentary series, who have recently transitioned into or within an academic career, discuss challenging aspects of an academic career change. The authors represent faculty members teaching within a large, state-funded, research-intensive School of Pharmacy located within a large academic health center. The authors have various backgrounds and represent individuals making transitions at various points in their careers (from residency into academia, from a non-academic environment into academia, and from one academic environment to another). CommentaryThis is Part 2 of a three-part commentary series that focuses on understanding and balancing the distribution of effort. Parts 1 and 3 of this commentary series explore feedback, evaluation and advancement; and learning when and how to say yes, respectively. While the entire series is intended to be read in continuity, faculty, or those interested in pursuing a career in pharmacy academia, can refer to Part 2 as a reference to aid in understanding and balancing the different components and the distribution of effort associated with a position in academic pharmacy, specifically. ImplicationsSchools of Pharmacy may utilize this as a tool for new faculty members during orientation in order to help ensure faculty success.

AACP Special Taskforce White Paper on Diversifying Our Investment in Human Capital

The 2015-2017 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Special Taskforce on Diversifying our Investment in Human Capital was appointed for a two-year term, due to the rigors and complexities of its charges. This report serves as a white paper for academic pharmacy on diversifying our investment in human capital. The Taskforce developed and recommended a representation statement that was adapted and adopted by the AACP House of Delegates at the 2016 AACP Annual Meeting. In addition, the Taskforce developed a diversity statement for the Association that was adopted by the AACP Board of Directors in 2017. The Taskforce also provides recommendations to AACP and to academic pharmacy in this white paper.

Aligning the AACP Strategic Engagement Agenda with Key Federal Priorities in Health: Report of the 2016-17 Argus Commission

The Argus Commission identified three major federal priorities related to health care, including the precision medicine initiative, the Cancer Moonshot and the opioid abuse epidemic. Current activities at the federal level were summarized and an analysis of activities within the profession, and academic pharmacy specifically, was prepared. The implications for pharmacy education, research and practice are compelling in all three areas. Recommendations, suggestions and two policy statements aim to optimize the attention to these priorities by the academy. Further, aligning the AACP Strategic Engagement agenda with the opportunities and threats acknowledged in the analysis is essential.

Exploring employer job requirements: An analysis of pharmacy job announcements

ObjectivesPostgraduate training, dual degrees, and board certifications are credentials viewed by academic pharmacy communities and professional organizations as positive assets for those seeking pharmacist jobs; however, a key question merits further investigation: do these views match employer expectations? The primary objective of this study was to identify the most common qualifications employers require as stated in job advertisements. MethodsPharmacist job postings from the aggregate jobs website Indeed.com were evaluated for the 20 largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Search criteria included: pharmacist, full-time, and within a 50-mile radius of the metropolitan area. Positions were excluded if they were not pharmacist specific, did not require a pharmacy degree, were part-time, or were temporary. Required and preferred qualifications were collected in the following categories: practice type, experience needed, training, certification, and desired skills. ResultsSix hundred and eleven of 1356 postings met inclusion criteria. Positions were classified as community (113), health-system (264), industry (149), academia (9), or other (76). Four hundred and six (66.4%) required a minimum of a Bachelor’s of Pharmacy degree, while 174 (28.4%) required a Doctor of Pharmacy degree. Experience was required for 467 positions (range of 6 months to 14 years). Postgraduate training was required for 73 positions (66 residency/7 fellowship). One job required a Master’s degree, type unspecified. BPS certifications were required for 7 positions (1.1%) and preferred for 22 positions (3.6%). Certifications and skills most required by employers were verbal and written skills (248), Microsoft Office proficiency (93), immunization certifications (51), and Basic Life Support/Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation certifications (37). ConclusionPostgraduate training, dual degrees, and board certification were not significant factors in the qualification criteria for the positions identified. The qualifications most often required by employers were experience and skills. Our findings indicated that employers wanted many soft skills that cannot be quantified.

A comparison between urban academic health care center and rural community faculty members in approaches to IPE

Abstract The objective of this study is to compare attitudes and approaches to interprofessional education (IPE) between urban and rural faculty and includes description of barriers for teaching collaborative team-based care. A qualitative comparison of interview data comparing rural community based physician and pharmacy faculty members with their academic health center counterparts found a shared interest in IPE. The groups differed, however, in their methods of teaching IPE. Some of these differences appear to be driven by the differences in nature of the two types of practices. There is some evidence that lack of preparation for teaching IPE is greater among rural community than among academic health care center faculty members, suggesting an opportunity for focused faculty development efforts in this area. This is a compelling issue as health care education programs continually seek preceptors for clinical experiences that provide learners with exposure to interprofessional team-based practice in a variety of settings.

The scholarly productivity and work environments of academic pharmacists.

Productive faculty are key to generating new knowledge and advancing pharmacy practice. The work environments of academic pharmacists are critical to their vitality, commitment, and longevity. To (1) identify correlates of faculty scholarly productivity and teaching effectiveness, considering personal and environmental characteristics; (2) determine the relationship between a faculty's perception of organizational citizenship behaviors they witness with the organizational culture of their employing college/school of pharmacy; and (3) describe the relationship between organizational climate, job satisfaction, and commitment of academic pharmacists. A self-administered survey was disseminated to a random sample of U.S. academic pharmacists acquired from AACP list-servs. The survey measured perceptions of their organization's culture, the organizational citizenship behaviors they witness at their institution, their job satisfaction, teaching load and productivity, and scholarly productivity based upon peer-reviewed scholarly papers accepted. Both bivariate and multivariate (regression) procedures were employed to identify factors most responsible for explaining academic pharmacist's work environment. Responses were received from 177 of 600 survey recipients. Faculty reported having had accepted 10.9±13.6 papers in peer-reviewed journals during the previous 5 years, with most of those in journals with relatively low Impact Factor scores. Faculty productivity was related to type of academic institution employed, teaching effectiveness, job satisfaction, and other factors. Organizational citizenship behaviors and organizational culture was seen similarly by faculty of varied ranks and experience levels. Commitment to remain at the current college/school of pharmacy was highly associated with culture, climate, and job satisfaction conditions. The results provided evidence for a strong connection or nexus between teaching and research effectiveness. Organizational culture of academic pharmacy programs is highly important for faculty vitality and commitment. The findings should be helpful for academic leaders in devising programs for mentoring, development, and retention of faculty.

Elias B. Chahine: Diving into Academic Pharmacy.

Elias B. Chahine: Diving into Academic Pharmacy.

Creating Student Organizations to Promote Careers in Academic Pharmacy

The high rate of faculty vacancies is an issue that has plagued schools and colleges of pharmacy throughout the United States for the past 10-15 years. A 2002 survey by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) found a severe faculty shortage, with an average of six open positions per

Toolkit for US colleges/schools of pharmacy to prepare learners for careers in academia

IntroductionThe objective of this article is to provide an academic toolkit for use by colleges/schools of pharmacy to prepare student pharmacists/residents for academic careers. MethodsThrough the American Association of Colleges of Pharmac (AACP) Section of Pharmacy Practice, the Student Resident Engagement Task Force (SRETF) collated teaching materials used by colleges/schools of pharmacy from a previously reported national survey. The SRETF developed a toolkit for student pharmacists/residents interested in academic pharmacy. ResultsEighteen institutions provided materials; five provided materials describing didactic coursework; over fifteen provided materials for an academia-focused Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences (APPE), while one provided materials for an APPE teaching-research elective. SRETF members created a syllabus template and sample lesson plan by integrating submitted resources. Submissions still needed to complete the toolkit include examples of curricular tracks and certificate programs. Discussion and conclusionsPharmacy faculty vacancies still exist in pharmacy education. Engaging student pharmacists/residents about academia pillars of teaching, scholarship and service is critical for the future success of the academy.

Facilitating Community Engagement in Academic Pharmacy Careers

Despite the recognized value of community engagement in academic pharmacy, the implementation of sustainable and fruitful community partnerships can be challenging. This manuscript will highlight a junior faculty member’s journey with community engagement, sharing the ways that community engagement can guide an academic career and the benefits of community engagement in teaching, research and service. Also highlighted is the role – and argued responsibility - of the academic institution in community engagement, as well as an identification of the barriers that might be interfering with pharmacy faculty community engagement. Considerations for the development of faculty members striving to more fully incorporate engagement into their teaching, research, and service are provided.
 Conflict of Interest
 I declare no conflicts of interest or financial interests that the authors or members of their immediate families have in any product or service discussed in the manuscript, including grants (pending or received), employment, gifts, stock holdings or options, honoraria, consultancies, expert testimony, patents and royalties.
 
 Type: Commentary

CLINICAL PHARMACY IN GALLE SRI LANKA, COLLABORATION AND FRIENDSHIP

Pharmacy undergraduate courses in Ruhuna, while is more practice focus than many of the other courses in Sri Lanka, it is still missing clinical pharmacy elements. Collaboration between academic staff from Ruhuna University and two international clinical pharmacy academics was established in 2014. The aim of this paper is to report on a clinical pharmacy training program, delivered by the international academics and supported by the Sri Lankan academics to pharmacy students in 2015-2016. After short conceptualisation lecture on each topic, there was a workshop which was structured as team case-based learning progressive case studies. Topics included mental health, pharmacokinetics, interpreting laboratory results, parenteral drug compatibility, special hospital compounding and medication review, of which all were assessed in the final examination. Student found team based learning to be engaging and enabled them to independently and critically think in a safe environment and preferable over the traditional lectures.

Teaching approaches in pharmacy courses: An observational study

Introduction Universities across the world have shifted their teaching approaches in Health tertiary education in response to health professions having even a stronger focus on patient-centred care. This change demands higher order attributes for our graduates. In pharmacy curriculum, the trends have moved towards programs that embed integrated learning in a collaborative student-led environments within a framework of professional competences. This contemporary environment is mostly supported by pedagogical principles of Connectivism and Social Constructivism in contrast to the Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Humanism that was predominant in more traditional programs. However, the implementation of an effective transition towards contemporary curricula has not been explored, and it requires a through assessment of the pedagogical principles supporting the delivery of teaching activities in traditional and contemporary programs. This investigation may provide those academics involved in curriculum design with a “roadmap” that facilitates that transition into contemporary courses. Aim To describe the teaching approaches utilised by pharmacy academics in a traditional and a contemporary pharmacy curriculum. Methods A mixed methods cross-sectional design was used for the generation of data. Academics from the Discipline of Pharmacy in the School of Clinical Sciences were invited to participate in an observational study to identify the teaching approaches used during their teaching activities. A checklist with the five most common pedagogical theories was used to generate the quantitative data, and field notes were taken for the qualitative data. Results The results of this study will identify the pedagogical theories that support traditional and contemporary pharmacy curricula. Discussion The study can help provide a starting point for current and future analysis of pharmacy undergraduate education. In addition, it can help the pharmacy curricula to better meet the needs demands of the pharmacy profession. This research can also be useful for other Health disciplines in the transition to contemporary curricula.

How a more detailed understanding of culture is needed before successful educational change can be made

IntroductionThe profession of pharmacy is being afforded many important opportunities, and continues to face many challenges. To successfully address these issues schools and colleges of pharmacy must have a complete understanding of their current context, which includes culture. However, little of the work on culture in pharmacy education specifically defines what these cultures are, and equally importantly how this understanding of culture can be used to make changes, improve student learning, and ultimately develop pharmacists better prepared to improve patient outcomes. PerspectiveOrganizational culture has been defined in a multitude of ways in the literature. Martin's three-perspectives approach, which combines integrated, differentiated, and fragmented understandings, offers one way to approach defining culture and leveraging that definition of change. Furthermore, the organizational culture profile (OCP), is one tool that can be used to identify and differentiate between Martin's three perspectives. ImplicationsCulture plays an important role in academic pharmacy, but before it can reach its highest potential in improving student outcomes, and faculty experience, it must be completely understood. Martin's approach and the OCP offer one way to achieve this objective.

Academic Pharmacy: Where is Our Influence?

Objective. To evaluate the talents of fellows from cohorts 1-10 of the Academic Leadership Fellows Program (ALFP). Methods. This was a descriptive analysis of previously collected ALFP cohort data reflecting the talents using the Clifton StrengthsFinder assessment tool. Data consisted of 295 fellows from the first 10 years of the ALFP program. The Clifton StrengthsFinder talents were aggregated and analyzed to determine talents (strengths) distribution and domain. The aggregate of the four domains were compared among ALFP fellows using a chi-square analysis with an a priori alpha of .05. Results. Lowest frequency of talents was found in the influencing domain (11.2%), while the domains with the largest frequency of talents were strategic thinking (34.4%) and executing (31.1%). When looking at the specific talents within the domains among the ALFP fellows, achiever (in the executing domain) and learner (in the strategic thinking domain) were the most frequent talents, while command (in the influencing domain) and adaptability (in the relationship building domain) were the least frequent talents. Conclusions. Since the profession is deficient in the influencing and relationship building domains (command and adaptability talents, respectively), this could help explain our slow progress in moving the profession from a product-focused role to a provider-based role. Perhaps the profession should be using a strategy better aligned with our signature leadership domains of executing and strategic thinking and focus on being a member of the health care team by aligning with team-based care rather than obtaining provider status.

Assessment of Burnout and Associated Risk Factors Among Pharmacy Practice Faculty in the United States

Objectives. To measure the level of burnout among pharmacy practice faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy and to identify factors associated with burnout. Methods. Using a cross-sectional, electronic, anonymous survey-design, we measured faculty burnout (n=2318) at US colleges and schools of pharmacy using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (MBI-ES), which measures burnout dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. We assessed MBI-ES scores, demographics and possible predictors of burnout. Results. The response rate was 32.7% (n=758). Emotional exhaustion was identified in 41.3% and was higher in women, assistant professors, and those without a hobby. Participants without a mentor had higher scores of depersonalization. Those with children ages 1-12 years had higher emotional exhaustion and depersonalization compared to those with older children. Conclusion. Pharmacy practice faculty members at US colleges and schools of pharmacy are suffering from burnout, exhibited mainly through emotional exhaustion.