Pharmacological Activation Of Protein Kinase C Research Articles

Pharmacological Protein Kinase C Modulators Reveal a Pro-hypertrophic Role for Novel Protein Kinase C Isoforms in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes.

Background: Hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes (CMs) is initially a compensatory mechanism to cardiac overload, but when prolonged, it leads to maladaptive myocardial remodeling, impairing cardiac function and causing heart failure. A key signaling molecule involved in cardiac hypertrophy is protein kinase C (PKC). However, the role of different PKC isoforms in mediating the hypertrophic response remains controversial. Both classical (cPKC) and novel (nPKC) isoforms have been suggested to play a critical role in rodents, whereas the role of PKC in hypertrophy of human CMs remains to be determined. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of two different types of PKC activators, the isophthalate derivative HMI-1b11 and bryostatin-1, on CM hypertrophy and to elucidate the role of cPKCs and nPKCs in endothelin-1 (ET-1)-induced hypertrophy in vitro. Methods and Results: We used neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs) and human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) to study the effects of pharmacological PKC modulators and ET-1. We used quantitative reverse transcription PCR to quantify hypertrophic gene expression and high-content analysis (HCA) to investigate CM morphology. In both cell types, ET-1, PKC activation (bryostatin-1 and HMI-1b11) and inhibition of cPKCs (Gö6976) increased hypertrophic gene expression. In NRVMs, these treatments also induced a hypertrophic phenotype as measured by increased recognition, intensity and area of α-actinin and F-actin fibers. Inhibition of all PKC isoforms with Gö6983 inhibited PKC agonist-induced hypertrophy, but could not fully block ET-1-induced hypertrophy. The mitogen-activated kinase kinase 1/2 inhibitor U0126 inhibited PKC agonist-induced hypertrophy fully and ET-1-induced hypertrophy partially. While ET-1 induced a clear increase in the percentage of pro-B-type natriuretic peptide-positive hiPSC-CMs, none of the phenotypic parameters used in HCA directly correlated with gene expression changes or with phenotypic changes observed in NRVMs. Conclusion: This work shows similar hypertrophic responses to PKC modulators in NRVMs and hiPSC-CMs. Pharmacological PKC activation induces CM hypertrophy via activation of novel PKC isoforms. This pro-hypertrophic effect of PKC activators should be considered when developing PKC-targeted compounds for e.g. cancer or Alzheimer’s disease. Furthermore, this study provides further evidence on distinct PKC-independent mechanisms of ET-1-induced hypertrophy both in NRVMs and hiPSC-CMs.

Distinct Regulation of Cardiac Fibroblast Proliferation and Transdifferentiation by Classical and Novel Protein Kinase C Isoforms: Possible Implications for New Antifibrotic Therapies.

Cardiac fibrosis is characterized by accumulation and activation of fibroblasts and excessive production of extracellular matrix, which results in myocardial stiffening and eventually leads to heart failure. Although previous work suggests that protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms play a role in cardiac fibrosis and remodeling, the results are conflicting. Moreover, the potential of targeting PKC with pharmacological tools to inhibit pathologic fibrosis has not been fully evaluated. Here we investigated the effects of selected PKC agonists and inhibitors on cardiac fibroblast (CF) phenotype, proliferation, and gene expression using primary adult mouse CFs, which spontaneously transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts in culture. A 48-hour exposure to the potent PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) at 10 nM concentration reduced the intensity of α-smooth muscle actin staining by 56% and periostin mRNA levels by 60% compared with control. The decreases were inhibited with the pan-PKC inhibitor Gö6983 and the inhibitor of classical PKC isoforms Gö6976, suggesting that classical PKCs regulate CF transdifferentiation. PMA also induced a 33% decrease in 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine-positive CFs, which was inhibited with Gö6983 but not with Gö6976, indicating that novel PKC isoforms (nPKCs) regulate CF proliferation. Moreover, PMA downregulated the expression of collagen-encoding genes Col1a1 and Col3a1 nPKC-dependently, showing that PKC activation attenuates matrix synthesis in CFs. The partial PKC agonist isophthalate derivative bis(1-ethylpentyl) 5-(hydroxymethyl)isophthalate induced parallel changes in phenotype, cell cycle activity, and gene expression. In conclusion, our results reveal distinct PKC-dependent regulation of CF transdifferentiation and proliferation and suggest that PKC agonists exhibit potential as an antifibrotic treatment. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Cardiac fibrosis is a pathological process that contributes to the development of heart failure. The molecular mechanisms regulating fibrosis in the heart are, however, not fully understood, which hinders the development of new therapies. Here, we demonstrate that classical and novel protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms distinctly regulate cardiac fibroblast transdifferentiation and proliferation, the two central processes in fibrosis. Our results indicate that pharmacological PKC activation may be a promising strategy to inhibit myocardial fibrosis.

Regulation of Kv1.4 potassium channels by PKC and AMPK kinases

ABSTRACTOver the last years extensive kinase-mediated regulation of a number of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels important in cardiac electrophysiology has been reported. This includes regulation of Kv1.5, Kv7.1 and Kv11.1 cell surface expression, where the kinase-mediated regulation appears to center around the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2. In the present study we examined whether Kv1.4, constituting the cardiac Ito,s current, is subject to similar regulation. In the epithelial Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell line, which constitutes a highly reproducible model system for addressing membrane targeting, we find, by confocal microscopy, that Kv1.4 cell surface expression is downregulated by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). In contrast, manipulating the activities of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K) and serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 (SGK1) were without effect on channel localization. The PKC and AMPK-mediated downregulation of Kv1.4 membrane surface localization was confirmed by two-electrode voltage clamp in Xenopus laevis oocytes, where pharmacological activation of PKC and AMPK reduced Kv1.4 current levels. We further demonstrate that unlike related Kv channels, Kv1.4 current levels in Xenopus laevis oocytes are not reduced by co-expression of Nedd4-2, or the related Nedd4-1 ubiquitin ligase. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the surface expression of Kv1.4 is downregulated by the two kinases AMPK and PKC, but is unaffected by PI3K-SGK1 signaling, as well as Nedd4-1/Nedd4-2 activity. In the light of previous reports, our results demonstrate an impressive heterogeneity in the molecular pathways controlling the surface expression of highly related potassium channel subunits.

Lipopolysaccharide impairs permeability of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells via Connexin40

The endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pulmonary endothelial barrier disruption is a key pathogenesis of acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying LPS-impaired permeability of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs) are not fully understood. Gap junctions, particularly Connexin40 (Cx40), are necessary for the maintenance of normal vascular function. In this study, we for the first time investigated the role of Cx40 in LPS-impaired permeability of PMVECs and provided potential therapeutic approaches based on mechanistic findings of Cx40 regulation by LPS stimuli. Rat PMVECs were isolated, cultured and identified with cell morphology, specific markers, ultrastructural characteristics and functional tests. Western blot analysis demonstrated that Cx40 is the major connexin highly expressed in PMVECs. Furthermore, by inhibiting Cx40 in a time-dependent manner, LPS impaired gap junction function and induced permeability injury of PMVECs. The key role of Cx40 decline in mediating detrimental effects of LPS was further confirmed in rescue experiments through Cx40 overexpression. Mechanistically, LPS stress on PMVECs inhibited the protein kinase C (PKC) pathway, which may synergize with the inflammatory nuclear factor kappaB (NFκB) signaling activation in suppressing Cx40 expression level and phosphorylation. Moreover, through pharmacological PKC activation or NFκB inhibition, Cx40 activity in PMVECs could be restored, leading to maintained barrier function under LPS stress. Our findings uncover a previously unrecognized role of Cx40 and its regulatory mechanisms in impaired endothelial integrity under endotoxin and inflammation, shedding light on intervention approaches to improve pulmonary endothelial barrier function in ALI and ARDS.

Protein Kinase C Activation as a Potential Therapeutic Strategy in Alzheimer's Disease: Is there a Role for Embryonic Lethal Abnormal Vision-like Proteins?

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is an irreversible and progressive neurodegenerative disorder. It affects predominantly brain areas that are critical for memory and learning and is characterized by two main pathological hallmarks: extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. Protein kinase C (PKC) has been classified as one of the cognitive kinases controlling memory and learning. By regulating several signalling pathways involved in amyloid and tau pathologies, it also plays an inhibitory role in AD pathophysiology. Among downstream targets of PKC are the embryonic lethal abnormal vision (ELAV)-like RNA-binding proteins that modulate the stability and the translation of specific target mRNAs involved in synaptic remodelling linked to cognitive processes. This MiniReview summarizes the current evidence on the role of PKC and ELAV-like proteins in learning and memory, highlighting how their derangement can contribute to AD pathophysiology. This last aspect emphasizes the potential of pharmacological activation of PKC as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of AD.

Carbonic Anhydrase 8 Expression in Purkinje Cells Is Controlled by PKCγ Activity and Regulates Purkinje Cell Dendritic Growth

Purkinje cell dendritic development is severely compromised after chronic activation of protein kinase C (PKC). In a recent transgenic mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia 14, the ser361-to-gly (S361G) mutation of the protein kinase C gamma (PKCγ) gene was expressed in Purkinje cells. Purkinje cells from these mutant mice in organotypic slice cultures have the same stunted dendritic tree as Purkinje cells after pharmacological activation of PKC. Because the transgene is exclusively present in Purkinje cells, cerebellar tissue from these mice is an attractive starting material for searching genes which might be interacting with PKCγ in Purkinje cells for inducing the stunted dendritic growth. We have performed a microarray analysis and identified several candidate genes with an increased messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in the PKCγ-S361G transgenic Purkinje cells. Out of these candidates, we have further studied carbonic anhydrase 8 (CA8). We show here that CA8 mRNA and protein expression is strongly induced in PKCγ-S361G transgenic Purkinje cells. Overexpression of CA8 in Purkinje cells in dissociated cultures strongly inhibited Purkinje cell dendritic development and produced a dendritic phenotype similar to PKCγ-S361G. There was no evidence for a direct binding of CA8 to either PKCγ or the type 1 IP3 receptor. Knockdown of CA8 with miRNA did not alter Purkinje cell dendritic development and did not protect Purkinje cells in dissociated cultures from the stunted dendritic growth induced by PKCγ-S361G or by PKC activation. Our results indicate that CA8 is a novel important regulator of Purkinje cell dendritic development and that its expression is controlled by PKCγ activity.

Pharmacological characterization of the involvement of protein kinase C in oscillatory and non-oscillatory calcium increases in astrocytes

Evidence increasingly shows that astrocytes play a pivotal role in brain physiology and pathology via calcium dependent processes, thus the characterization of the calcium dynamics in astrocytes is of growing importance. We have previously reported that the epidermal growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor up-regulate the oscillation of the calcium releases that are induced by stimuli, including glutamate in cultured astrocytes. This calcium oscillation is assumed to involve protein kinase C (PKC), which is activated together with the calcium releases as a consequence of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis. In the present study, this issue has been investigated pharmacologically by using astrocytes cultured with and without the growth factors. The pharmacological activation of PKC largely reduced the glutamate-induced oscillatory and non-oscillatory calcium increases. Meanwhile, PKC inhibitors increased the total amounts of both calcium increases without affecting the peak amplitudes and converted the calcium oscillations to non-oscillatory sustained calcium increases by abolishing the falling phases of the repetitive calcium increases. Furthermore, the pharmacological effects were consistent between both glutamate- and histamine-induced calcium oscillations. These results suggest that PKC up-regulates the removal of cytosolic calcium in astrocytes, and this up-regulation is essential for calcium oscillation in astrocytes cultured with growth factors.

Novel BK channel regulatory mechanism by protein kinase C in guinea pig urinary bladder smooth muscle (865.1)

Large conductance Ca2+‐activated K+ (BK) channels are critical regulators of urinary bladder smooth muscle (UBSM) function. Here, we provide a novel mechanistic insight into BK channel regulation by protein kinase C (PKC) in UBSM. Voltage‐clamp experiments showed that pharmacological activation of PKC with phorbol 12‐myristate 13‐acetate (PMA), inhibited the spontaneous transient BK currents (TBKCs) in native freshly‐isolated guinea pig UBSM cells. Current‐clamp recordings revealed that PMA significantly depolarized UBSM membrane potential, and reduced the spontaneous transient hyperpolarizations in UBSM cells. The PMA inhibitory effects on UBSM membrane potential were abolished by the selective BK channel inhibitor paxilline and were not observed with its inactive analog, 4‐alpha‐PMA. PMA did not affect the amplitude of the whole cell steady‐state BK current or single BK channel open probability (recorded in cell‐attached mode) upon inhibition of all major Ca2+ sources for BK channel activation with thapsigargin, ryanodine, and nifedipine. PMA elevated the intracellular Ca2+ levels in UBSM cells, and increased spontaneous phasic and nerve‐evoked contractions of UBSM isolated strips. The results support the concept that PKC activation leads to a reduction in BK channel activity in UBSM via a Ca2+‐dependent mechanism, thus increasing UBSM contractility.Grant Funding Source: Supported by R01 DK084284 to G. V. Petkov

Muscarinic receptors stimulate AC2 by novel phosphorylation sites, whereas Gβγ subunits exert opposing effects depending on the G-protein source

Direct phosphorylation of AC2 (adenylyl cyclase 2) by PKC (protein kinase C) affords an opportunity for AC2 to integrate signals from non-canonical pathways to produce the second messenger, cyclic AMP. The present study shows that stimulation of AC2 by pharmacological activation of PKC or muscarinic receptor activation is primarily the result of phosphorylation of Ser490 and Ser543, as opposed to the previously proposed Thr1057. A double phosphorylation-deficient mutant (S490/543A) of AC2 was insensitive to PMA (phorbol myristic acid) and CCh (carbachol) stimulation, whereas a double phosphomimetic mutant (S490/543D) mimicked the activity of PKC-activated AC2. Putative Gβγ-interacting sites are in the immediate environment of these PKC phosphorylation sites (Ser490 and Ser543) that are located within the C1b domain of AC2, suggesting a significant regulatory importance of this domain. Consequently, we examined the effect of both Gq-coupled muscarinic and Gi-coupled somatostatin receptors. Employing pharmacological and FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer)-based real-time single cell imaging approaches, we found that Gβγ released from the Gq-coupled muscarinic receptor or Gi-coupled somatostatin receptors exert inhibitory or stimulatory effects respectively. These results underline the sophisticated regulatory capacities of AC2, in not only being subject to regulation by PKC, but also and in an opposite manner to Gβγ subunits, depending on their source.

Regulation of Prostate Cancer Cell Survival by Protein Kinase C∈ Involves Bad Phosphorylation and Modulation of the TNFα/JNK Pathway

Protein kinase Cepsilon (PKCepsilon), a diacyglycerol- and phorbol ester-responsive serine-threonine kinase, has been implicated in mitogenic and survival control, and it is markedly overexpressed in human tumors, including in prostate cancer. Although prostate cancer cells undergo apoptosis in response to phorbol ester stimulation via PKCdelta-mediated release of death factors, the involvement of PKCepsilon in this response is not known. PKCepsilon depletion by RNAi or expression of a dominant negative kinase-dead PKCepsilon mutant potentiated the apoptotic response of PMA and sensitized LNCaP cells to the death receptor ligand TNFalpha. On the other hand, overexpression of PKCepsilon by adenoviral means protected LNCaP cells against apoptotic stimuli. Interestingly, PKCepsilon RNAi depletion significantly enhanced the release of TNFalpha in response to PMA and greatly potentiated JNK activation by this cytokine. Further mechanistic analysis revealed that PMA fails to promote phosphorylation of Bad in Ser(112) in PKCepsilon-depleted LNCaP cells, whereas PKCepsilon overexpression greatly enhanced Bad phosphorylation. This effect was independent of Akt, ERK, or p90Rsk, well established kinases for Ser(112) in Bad. Moreover, expression of a S112A-Bad mutant potentiated PMA-induced apoptosis. Finally, we found that upon activation PKCepsilon accumulated in mitochondrial fractions in LNCaP cells and that Bad was a substrate of PKCepsilon in vitro. Our results established that PKCepsilon modulates survival in prostate cancer cells via multiple pathways.

Aquaporin-1 Channel Function Is Positively Regulated by Protein Kinase C

Aquaporin-1 (AQP1) channels contribute to osmotically induced water transport in several organs including the kidney and serosal membranes such as the peritoneum and the pleura. In addition, AQP1 channels have been shown to conduct cationic currents upon stimulation by cyclic nucleotides. To date, the short term regulation of AQP1 function by other major intracellular signaling pathways has not been studied. In the present study, we therefore investigated the regulation of AQP1 by protein kinase C. AQP1 wild type channels were expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Water permeability was assessed by hypotonic challenges. Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) by 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) induced a marked increase of AQP1-dependent water permeability. This regulation was abolished in mutated AQP1 channels lacking both consensus PKC phosphorylation sites Thr(157) and Thr(239) (termed AQP1 DeltaPKC). AQP1 cationic currents measured with double-electrode voltage clamp were markedly increased after pharmacological activation of PKC by either OAG or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. Deletion of either Thr(157) or Thr(239) caused a marked attenuation of PKC-dependent current increases, and deletion of both phosphorylation sites in AQP1 DeltaPKC channels abolished the effect. In vitro phosphorylation studies with synthesized peptides corresponding to amino acids 154-168 and 236-250 revealed that both Thr(157) and Thr(239) are phosphorylated by PKC. Upon stimulation by cyclic nucleotides, AQP1 wild type currents exhibited a strong activation. This regulation was not affected after deletion of PKC phosphorylation sites in AQP1 DeltaPKC channels. In conclusion, this is the first study to show that PKC positively regulates both water permeability and ionic conductance of AQP1 channels. This new pathway of AQP1 regulation is independent of the previously described cyclic nucleotide pathway and may contribute to the PKC stimulation of AQP1-modulated processes such as endothelial permeability, angiogenesis, and urine concentration.

Modulation of Kv3.1b Potassium Channel Phosphorylation in Auditory Neurons by Conventional and Novel Protein Kinase C Isozymes

In fast-spiking neurons such as those in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) in the auditory brainstem, Kv3.1 potassium channels are required for high frequency firing. The Kv3.1b splice variant of this channel predominates in the mature nervous system and is a substrate for phosphorylation by protein kinase C (PKC) at Ser-503. In resting neurons, basal phosphorylation at this site decreases Kv3.1 current, reducing neuronal ability to follow high frequency stimulation. We used a phospho-specific antibody to determine which PKC isozymes control serine 503 phosphorylation in Kv3.1b-tranfected cells and in auditory neurons in brainstem slices. By using isozyme-specific inhibitors, we found that the novel PKC-delta isozyme, together with the novel PKC-epsilon and conventional PKCs, contributed to the basal phosphorylation of Kv3.1b in MNTB neurons. In contrast, only PKC-epsilon and conventional PKCs mediate increases in phosphorylation produced by pharmacological activation of PKC in MNTB neurons or by metabotropic glutamate receptor activation in Kv3.1/mGluR1-cotransfected cells. We also measured the time course of dephosphorylation and recovery of basal phosphorylation of Kv3.1b following brief high frequency electrical stimulation of the trapezoid body, and we determined that the recovery process is mediated by both novel PKC-delta and PKC-epsilon isozymes and by conventional PKCs. The association between Kv3.1b and PKC isozymes was confirmed by reciprocal coimmunoprecipitation of Kv3.1b with multiple PKC isozymes. Our results suggest that the Kv3.1b channel is regulated by both conventional and novel PKC isozymes and that novel PKC-delta contributes specifically to the maintenance of basal phosphorylation in auditory neurons.

Mobilizing K-Ras to Fight Cancer

K-Ras, a small guanosine triphosphatase whose constitutive activation through mutation is associated with cancer, is targeted to the plasma membrane through a farnesylated C-terminal and a nearby polybasic region (see Feig). Noting that the polybasic region is phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC), a modification that could neutralize its charge and destabilize electrostatic interactions with membrane phospholipids, Bivona et al. investigated the effects of K-Ras phosphorylation on its localization. Pharmacological activation of PKC promoted the reversible translocation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled K-Ras from the plasma membrane to the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondrial outer membranes. Translocation was also promoted by a construct containing the PKCθ catalytic domain fused with a Ras binding domain. Substitution of alanine for serine at position 181 in the K-Ras C-terminal region, which reduced K-Ras phosphorylation in response to PKC, blocked K-Ras translocation, whereas substitution with glutamic acid (creating a phosphomimetic residue) led to constitutive internalization. Stimulating PKC in cells expressing a constitutively active oncogenic K-Ras mutant (K-Ras12V), or expressing K-Ras12V with glutamic acid at position 181 (K-Ras12V181E), promoted apoptosis. K-Ras associated with Bcl-XL; this association was promoted by K-Ras activation, PKC activation, or glutamic acid substitution of S181 and took place on mitochondria. Moreover, the ability of K-Ras12V181E to stimulate apoptosis depended on Bcl-XL. Intriguingly, pharmacological stimulation of PKC inhibited K-Ras12V-dependent tumorigenesis in a manner that depended on S181. Thus, the authors conclude that PKC regulates K-Ras localization and function and that manipulation of K-Ras phosphorylation could represent a novel approach to antineoplastic therapy. T. G. Bivona, S. E. Quatela, B. O. Bodemann, I. M. Ahearn, M. J. Soskis, A. Mor, J. Miura, H. H. Wiener, L. Wright, S. G. Saba, D. Yim, A. Fein, I. Pérez de Castro, C. Li, C. B. Thompson, A. D. Cox, M. R. Philips, PKC regulates a farnesyl-electrostatic switch on K-Ras that promotes its association with Bcl-XL on mitochondria and induces apoptosis. Mol. Cell 21 , 481-493 (2006). [PubMed] L. A. Feig, The odyssey of K-Ras. Mol. Cell 21 , 447-449 (2006). [PubMed]

The Role of Protein Kinase C as a Regulator of NG115‐401L Neuronal Cell Calcium Signaling Pathways

The molecular regulation of non-voltage gated calcium influx continues to be an important but poorly characterized signaling pathway in cellular physiology. We have previously characterized unique features of calcium influx in the NG115-401L (401L) neuronal cell line, revealing a phenotype that appears to depend on a conformational coupling mode for the regulation of both calcium influx and release. In this study, we used ratiometric microscope photometry on Fura 2 loaded 401L cells to further probe the apparatus mediating calcium influx when cells are stimulated with pro-inflammatory hormones such as bradykinin. In particular, we have examined the effects of pharmacological modulation of protein kinase C (PKC) on native 401L cells and on cells overexpressing canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) ion channels. Our preliminary results reveal that inhibitors of PKC augment calcium influx in 401L cells suggesting that PKC activation serves to suppresses the calcium influx mechanism. In contrast, pharmacological activation of PKC using phorbol ester treatment did not significantly influence calcium influx in both native or TRPC overexpressing 401L cells. Intriguingly, we observed that PKC activation in the presence of extracellular calcium elicited discharge from intracellular calcium stores, suggesting a composite target containing PKC activity regulating both calcium release and influx. This work was supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (1R15 NS048041-01A1) to D.W.T.

Protein kinase C distribution and translocation in rat myocardium: Methodological considerations

Introduction: Protein kinase C (PKC) is an important modifier of several cardiovascular phenomena, including cardioprotection, apoptosis, and hypertrophy. Although pharmacological activation of PKC is often assessed by translocation, the effects of isolation procedures on left ventricular (LV) PKC distribution have not been systematically examined. Accordingly, we sought to determine whether homogenization methods (Polytron, glass–glass tissue grinder), detergent selection and concentration, or centrifugation protocols affect PKC (α, ɛ) distribution or phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA)-induced translocation. Methods: Hearts of male F344 or Wistar rats were Langendorff perfused with either 100 nM PMA or vehicle, and LV cytosolic and particulate PKC (α, ɛ) distributions were assessed by differential centrifugation and Western blotting. Results: Following 100 000 × g centrifugation of the homogenate, resuspension of the pellet (P 1) in 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) increased electrophoretic mobility of PKC (α, ɛ) such that PKCɛ comigrated with a nonspecific band. Resuspension of P 1 in Triton X-100 (TX) did not affect mobility but decreased P 1 PKC (α, ɛ) levels in a TX-concentration-dependent manner; however, this decrease was found to be due to differential protein solubilization. Decreased levels of PKC (α, ɛ) were also noted in soluble and P 2 (supernatant of 100 000 × g centrifugation of P 1) fractions due to increased Polytron burst and total homogenization times. Interestingly, the P 2 fraction also revealed Polytron-dependent decreases (47% vs. glass–glass tissue grinder; p<0.05) in PKCɛ following an initial 1000 × g centrifugation and an increased PMA-dependent translocation of PKC (α, ɛ; 2.4-fold and 1.6-fold, respectively, vs. P 1; p<0.05). Discussion: Taken together, these results suggest that PKC isolation procedures should be carefully considered when designing or comparing LV PKC studies due to the potential effects isolation may have on PKC distribution and translocation.

Effect of protein kinase C inhibition on hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.

The current study was done to test the hypothesis that protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors prevent the increase in pulmonary vascular resistance and compliance that occurs in isolated, blood-perfused dog lungs during hypoxia. Pulmonary vascular resistances and compliances were measured with vascular occlusion techniques. Hypoxia significantly increased pulmonary arterial resistance, pulmonary venous resistance, and pulmonary capillary pressure and decreased total vascular compliance by decreasing both microvascular and large-vessel compliances. The nonspecific PKC inhibitor staurosporine (10(-7) M), the specific PKC blocker calphostin C (10(-7) M), and the specific PKC isozyme blocker Gö-6976 (10(-7) M) inhibited the effect of hypoxia on pulmonary vascular resistance and compliance. In addition, the PKC activator thymeleatoxin (THX; 10(-7) M) increased pulmonary vascular resistance and compliance in a manner similar to that in hypoxia, and the L-type voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel blocker nifedipine (10(-6) M) inhibited the response to both THX and hypoxia. These results suggest that PKC inhibition blocks the hypoxic pressor response and that the pharmacological activation of PKC by THX mimics the hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstrictor response. In addition, L-type voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel blockade may prevent the onset of the hypoxia- and PKC-induced vasoconstrictor response in the canine pulmonary vasculature.

Potassium channels modulate canine pulmonary vasoreactivity to protein kinase C activation.

The role of Ca2+-activated K+-channel, ATP-sensitive K+-channel, and delayed rectifier K+-channel modulation in the canine pulmonary vascular response to protein kinase C (PKC) activation was determined in the isolated blood-perfused dog lung. Pulmonary vascular resistances and compliances were measured with vascular occlusion techniques. The PKC activators phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA; 10(-7) M) and thymeleatoxin (THX; 10(-7) M) significantly increased pulmonary arterial and pulmonary venous resistances and pulmonary capillary pressure and decreased total vascular compliance by decreasing both microvascular and large-vessel compliances. The Ca2+-activated K+-channel blocker tetraethylammonium ions (1 mM), the ATP-sensitive K+-channel inhibitor glibenclamide (10(-5) M), and the delayed rectifier K+-channel blocker 4-aminopyridine (10(-4) M) potentiated the pressor response to both PMA and THX on the arterial and venous segments and also further decreased pulmonary vascular compliance. In contrast, the ATP-sensitive K+-channel opener cromakalim (10(-5) M) attenuated the vasoconstrictor effect of PMA and THX on both the arterial and venous vessels. In addition, membrane depolarization by 30 mM KCl elicited an increase in the pressor response to PMA. These results indicate that pharmacological activation of PKC elicits pulmonary vasoconstriction. Closure of the Ca2+-activated K+ channels, ATP-sensitive K+ channels, and delayed rectifier K+ channels as well as direct membrane depolarization by KCl potentiated the response to PMA and THX, indicating that K+ channels modulate the canine pulmonary vasoconstrictor response to PKC activation.

Role of Protein Kinase C in Attachment, Spreading, and Migration of Human Endothelial Cells

Attachment, spreading, and migration of vascular endothelial cells (EC) are necessary for angiogenesis, reendothelialization of an injured artery, or seeding of a prosthetic graft. However, little is known about the signaling pathways that mediate these effects. Protein kinase C (PKC) is a ubiquitous intracellular messenger which we have previously shown to be necessary for EC proliferation (Kentet al.,1995,Circ. Res.77, 231–238). In this study, we investigate whether activation of PKC is necessary for EC attachment, spreading, and migration. Using human umbilical vein EC, we found that direct activation of PKC with the phorbol ester phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate enhanced all three processes. Inhibition of PKC by the selective agent, chelerythrine, markedly diminished the ability of EC to attach, spread, and migrate. Depletion of intracellular PKC by downregulation (prolonged exposure of EC to phorbol ester) reduced EC attachment and migration; however, downregulation had no effect on endothelial spreading. PKC is a family of isotypes, each of which may control specific cellular functions. By Western blotting, we identified PKC alpha, beta, delta, epsilon, eta, theta, and zeta isotypes in human EC. Downregulation led to a significant reduction in the quantity of PKC alpha and epsilon. These data demonstrate that activation of PKC is both necessary and sufficient for attachment, spreading, and migration of human EC. An isotype of PKC that is susceptible to downregulation (either alpha and/or epsilon) is at least partially responsible for attachment and migration. Pharmacological activation of PKC may be used as a method to enhance reendothelialization.

HDL-Mediated Efflux of Intracellular Cholesterol Is Impaired in Fibroblasts From Tangier Disease Patients

To further elucidate the cellular mechanisms leading to HDL deficiency in Tangier disease, HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux was studied in cultured skin fibroblasts from Tangier patients. Both Tangier and control fibroblasts show specific saturable binding of HDL3 to the cell membrane (Bmax = 70 and 52 ng/mg protein, respectively; Kd = 8.8 and 10.6 micrograms/mL, respectively). There was no appreciable uptake of HDL3 by Tangier and control fibroblasts, indicating that cholesterol efflux from fibroblasts occurs at the cell membrane. When cellular cholesterol was labeled to equilibrium by [14C]cholesterol incubation for 48 hours at 37 degrees C, HDL3-mediated cholesterol efflux from Tangier fibroblasts was only 50% of control fibroblasts. To define this abnormality in HDL3-mediated cholesterol efflux more precisely, several additional experiments were performed. First, membrane desorption of cholesterol was determined after cell membranes were labeled with [14C]cholesterol for 3 hours at 15 degrees C. With this labeling protocol, there was no difference in HDL3-mediated cholesterol efflux between control and Tangier fibroblasts. Second, efflux of newly synthesized sterols was determined after incorporation of the precursor [14C]mevalonolactone. Under these conditions, specific HDL3-mediated efflux of sterols was almost absent in Tangier fibroblasts. Third, cells were labeled by incubation with reconstituted [3H]cholesteryl-linoleate-LDL. Efflux of LDL-derived cholesterol was only slightly reduced for the first 4 hours of incubation. After 12 hours, there was no difference between control and Tangier cells. The combined data indicate that the reduced efflux of cholesterol from Tangier fibroblasts observed after homogeneous labeling is due to severely reduced efflux of newly synthesized sterol.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The role of protein kinase-C in control of aldosterone production by rat adrenal glomerulosa cells: activation of protein kinase-C by stimulation with potassium.

The role of protein kinase-C (PKC) in control of the function of rat adrenal glomerulosa cells was studied. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), an activator of PKC, inhibited the stimulation of aldosterone production induced by K+ (5.4 mM) or ACTH (5 pM) in a dose-dependent manner. Phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate, another phorbol ester that activates PKC, also exerted an inhibitory effect, while the inactive 4 alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate failed to affect aldosterone production. The inhibitory effect of PMA (5 nM) was reversed by preincubation of the cells with staurosporine (ST; 50 nM), an inhibitor of PKC. These data suggest that pharmacological activation of PKC initiates an inhibitory mechanism in rat glomerulosa cells. To elucidate whether PKC is activated by physiological stimuli, the effects of ST and down-regulation of PKC by prolonged pretreatment with PMA on stimulation of aldosterone production were studied. The effects of angiotensin-II (AII) and K+, but not that of ACTH, were enhanced by ST pretreatment. This potentiation was prompt and transient in the case of AII (2.5 nM), while it developed gradually when the cells were stimulated with K+ (5.4 or 18 mM). Long term pretreatment (6 h) of glomerulosa cells with PMA also enhanced the stimulatory effect of AII (300 pM) and K+ (5.4 mM). These data together suggest that the actions of AII and K+ on aldosterone production involve a PKC-mediated inhibition. Activation of PKC by AII is probably due to formation of diacylglycerol via receptor-mediated activation of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase-C. Stimulation with K+ caused a moderate accumulation of [3H]inositol phosphate in a concentration-dependent manner. Since this effect was abolished by nifedipine, activation of phospholipase-C may have been secondary to Ca2+ entry. The concomitant formation of diacylglycerol may contribute to activation of PKC in K+ stimulated cells. In conclusion, our data support the view that PKC participates in the physiological control of aldosterone production by rat adrenal glomerulosa cells. In addition to AII, K+ may activate PKC. Regardless of whether the enzyme is activated by phorbol esters or physiological stimuli, it exerts an inhibitory, rather than stimulatory, action on steroid production.