Pharmaceutical Calculations Research Articles

Effectiveness of Providing Video Podcasts to Pharmacy Students in a Self-Study Pharmaceutical Calculations Module

Objective. To evaluate the effect of providing educational video podcasts to first-year pharmacy students enrolled in a self-taught pharmaceutical calculations module.Methods. Six video podcasts were designed and posted online for pharmacy students to review prior to taking pharmaceutical calculations quizzes over the course of one year. The video podcasts demonstrated how to solve the most difficult problems on each of the six quizzes. Quiz performance was compared for the 2017-2018 year (no videos available) and the 2018-2019 year (videos available). Students provided feedback about the videos in a year-end survey.Results. Overall quiz scores and passing rates improved during the 2018-2019 academic year. Enhanced student performance on three of the six quizzes was demonstrated. A majority of students strongly agreed that the videos were helpful.Conclusion. Watching video podcasts was effective in improving pharmacy students' performance on calculations quizzes. The students indicated that the podcasts were helpful in improving their math skills and facilitated their learning of the material.

‘Both useful in their own way’: Video podcasts and typed solutions as feedback on undergraduate pharmaceutical calculations skills assessment

IntroductionAccurately completing pharmaceutical calculations is a core professional skill for pharmacists. To date, few studies have focused on to providing feedback on calculations, or the role of technology in feedback provision. This study aimed to develop a theory-informed video podcast-based method of providing formative feedback and evaluate student perceptions. MethodsFirst-year pharmacy students (n = 53) completed a formative pharmaceutical calculations assessment. Two forms of feedback were designed and evaluated; typed solutions (traditional format commonly used/seen in textbooks) and video podcasts informed by instructional design theory (novel format). ResultsA survey was completed by 70% (37/53) of students. Specific features of video podcasts reported useful included hearing reasoning, and the ability to pause and rewind. Most (76%) reported positive attitudes towards video podcasts, considered them useful (75%) and helpful for learning (79%). A comparable number (76% and 71% respectively) felt positively about typed solutions. The majority (51%) preferred to receive both types rather than podcasts alone (24%), or typed solutions alone (8%). Free-text responses indicated both were used in different ways; typed solutions for quick verification and video podcasts for clarification. ConclusionsVideo podcasts appear to be a potentially helpful additional method of delivering feedback that afford specific advantages. They can be readily developed by faculty with minimal expense/difficulty. However, as respondents indicated that they used both kinds of feedback in different ways to support their learning, and indicated a preference to receive both types, they should be considered an addition rather than replacement for typed solutions.

It's Just Math-Unless It's Toxic!

The objective was to determine emergency medicine residents' ability to perform pharmaceutical calculations. A six-question needs-assessment survey of emergency medicine residents was conducted at a citywide conference in 2016. Residents performed simple pharmaceutical calculations and were queried regarding resources they typically use to aid in performing calculations. Fifty-three emergency medicine residents out of 110 attendees (48%) completed the survey (postgraduate year [PGY]-1 n=27, PGY-2 n=13, PGY-3 n=8, PGY-4 or above n=5). Nearly 80% (n=42) of all residents responded correctly to at least four of six questions (PGY-1=70%, PGY-2=86%, PGY-3=88%, and PGY-4 and above=100%). Sixty-five percent of PGY-1s, 50% of PGY-2s, and 75% of PGY-3s thought that it was very important to correctly perform basic calculations. Google and Up To Date were frequently used to assist with calculations. More than 70% of all residents utilize clinical pharmacy (PharmD) staff for calculating doses. PharmD services were available at all times in the majority of survey responses. Emergency medicine residents performed poorly when completing pharmaceutical calculations. This may contribute to increased patient morbidity and mortality. Internet resource use increased as the years of training increased. PharmD services were extensively utilized by all resident regardless of years of training.

A STUDY TO EXPLORE LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES OF PHARMACY STUDENTS WITH REGARD TO PHARMACEUTICAL CALCULATIONS

Objective: Pharmaceutical calculations are an essential aspect of learning for pharmacy students in order to avoid drug dose errors and maintain patient safety in future practice. Learning styles influence how lecturers approach the teaching-learning process. So far no specific learning preference is believed to be most appropriate for the pharmacy curricular; however certain learning styles are favoured by students as they improve their understanding of course material, knowledge and performance.
 Methods: 148Master of pharmacy participants from the second and third year were given a questionnaire to complete during a compulsory Individual Readiness Assurance Test session. Participants were restricted to just one option.
 Results: Workshops with a tutor was the most selected (36%) followed by 25% of participants favouring formative assessments, 28% selected workbooks alone, 37% for whole-class lecturers and videos option was the least selected. Reasons for the most and least preferred learning styles were highlighted and separated into advantages and disadvantages using themes. In the knowledge test; 92% of participants selected “unsure” or “didn’t know” the answer, 29% had a partially correct answer and 19% selected incorrect answers.
 The overall order of ranking arose in regards to the most beneficial learning style which enhances performance. The responses revealed a variety of advantages and disadvantages which were reflected between year groups and similar to views obtained from recent literature. Students reflected a lack of understanding on extemporaneous preparation (EPs) terms used in pharmaceutical compounding practices, thus the university should consider addressing the lack of awareness and consider the best teaching-learning style in doing so.
 Conclusion: Overall the findings suggested that the sample students have similar views on the learning styles used to deliver pharmaceutical calculations on their academic performance to that expressed by the authors from recent published literature.

Predicting success in pharmaceutical calculations

IntroductionUnderstanding preadmission predictors of success in pharmacy calculations, an important aspect of pharmacy practice, could impact admissions selection and advising practices. The objective of this study was to determine which student specific preadmission variables best predict success in a pharmaceutical calculations course. MethodsPreadmission data from 388 students who completed a one semester pharmaceutical calculations course between 2013 and 2016 were evaluated. This retrospective analysis was performed to determine which of the independent preadmission variables were positively correlated to the pharmaceutical calculations course grade. Fifteen preadmission variables, including demographics, grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) score, prior degrees, and number of pre-professional credit hours completed, were evaluated. Descriptive statistics were used for baseline characteristics and relative importance analysis was used to examine association between the dependent and independent variables. ResultsThe relative importance analysis revealed eight of the fifteen preadmission variables were significantly correlated with final grades in pharmaceutical calculations. Overall, 26.1% of the variance was explained by these variables. GPA (cumulative and science specific) and PCAT (quantitative and verbal) were the strongest indicators. ConclusionsPreadmission GPA and PCAT scores were the best predictors of success in a pharmaceutical calculations course. About one quarter of the variance was explained by the identified predictive variables, therefore other factors, not evaluated in this study, likely influence the success in pharmaceutical calculations and should be investigated to determine a more dependable set of predictors.

Evaluating Student Performance and Perception of a Workshop Integrating Pharmacy Practice and a Pharmaceutics Lab.

Evaluating Student Performance and Perception of a Workshop Integrating Pharmacy Practice and a Pharmaceutics Lab. Common methods for curricular integration are often time and faculty-intensive. An innovative approach to integration was developed and utilized in an introductory compounding workshop. Faculty members collaborated with a compounding pharmacist to design and facilitate a pharmaceutics workshop for first-year pharmacy students. The workshop was composed of four major sections, an introduction to pharmaceutical compounding and the regulations surrounding manufacturing and sterility, a case discussion involving a pediatric patient and the need to develop an appropriate drug delivery system, a short review of pharmaceutical calculations and labeling requirements, and then an introduction to logistics and active learning in a lab setting. After taking part in the workshop, students indicated a significantly higher comfort level going into the pharmaceutics lab (3.48±0.83 to 4.04±0.70) and in the compounding process (3.06±0.83 to 3.71±0.80). Their views of the clinical application of the lab and the need to use knowledge gained from other courses in the lab were also significantly improved (4.36±0.68 to 4.61±0.49 and 3.71±0.77 to 4.26±0.74, respectively). In addition, their perceptions of how they will utilize the skills developed as a practicing pharmacist, and their feelings towards the safety procedures involved in compounding, were also positively affected (3.96±0.87 to 4.45±0.59 and 3.28±0.92 to 3.91±0.72, respectively). Finally, students' average quiz score in Spring 2016, when the workshop was instituted, significantly increased from Spring 2015 (90.154±4.98 versus 85.89±10.87, respectively).

Student Performance with Standalone Calculations Course vs Combined Pharmaceutics-Calculations Course

Objective. To determine whether a standalone pharmacy calculations course promotes student performance and retention when compared to pharmacy calculations taught within a pharmaceutics course. Methods. Data were compared between two groups of student pharmacists (those who took the combined pharmaceutics-calculations course and those who took the standalone calculations course). Data from both groups, such as course grades, objective structured clinical evaluation (OSCE) scores, and independent calculation self-assessment skills test scores were compared to students' pre-pharmacy math grade point average (GPA) to determine whether variance was more likely to have been caused by inter-student aptitude differences or course structure differences. Student confidence in their pharmacy calculations skills and course structure preferences was surveyed. Results. Students who took the standalone pharmaceutical calculations course performed better as indicated by an improvement in calculations course grades, OSCE performance, retention of calculation skills, and in self-confidence. Students also reported that the standalone course structure was more effective. Conclusion. The new, standalone calculations course is effective and improved student calculations performance and retention.

Development of a teaching model to advance skills in industrial pharmaceutical formulation and regulatory aspects

Background and purposeTo design and critically evaluate a laboratory-scale pharmaceutical formulation practical that enables pharmaceutical science students to develop work-based skills relating to industrial pharmacy such as problem solving, pharmaceutical calculations, research, legal checking, communication, practical aptitude, handling of medicinal products, record keeping, and ability to interpret, analyze and report data. Educational activity and settingNine laboratory practical sessions were designed whereby students formulated a range of dosage forms and conducted corrective and preventative actions (CAPAs) exercises. A master batch formula outlined the specifications for each product and a practical sheet was provided for the students to record their activities. Student evaluation of the exercise was performed via a self-administered 17-item questionnaire in the final week. FindingsTwenty-four students completed the workshops over two year groups (2015 year group n = 11, 2016 year group n = 13). The mean score across both groups was 15.6 out of 20. DiscussionThe questionnaire had a 100% response rate and the majority of students agreed that the classes were a useful teaching method and that they fostered key skills required for pharmaceutical formulation and regulation. SummaryLaboratory classes effectively delivered course content relating to industrial-based pharmaceutical formulation and helped to develop relevant skills.

An evaluation of student performance and perceptions within an integrated pharmaceutics course sequence

Background and purposeTo describe the design of an integrated pharmaceutics course sequence and to assess the sequence by evaluating both student performance and perceptions. Educational activity and settingThe non-sterile products portion of a pharmaceutics course sequence was designed to integrate the disciplines of physical pharmacy, dosage forms, pharmacy compounding, and pharmaceutical calculations and to include the respective topics deemed most relevant to doctor of pharmacy curriculum. The appropriate course content was organized in a modular format that began with the general concepts of drug product administration, preparation, stability, and performance and then specifically applied these concepts to a variety of non-sterile dosage forms. FindingsStudent performance was assessed through several cumulative exams and lab practicals. Mean performance on these assessments was at a level generally considered to be adequate within the study institution. However, students performed better on the assessments having a lesser emphasis on physical pharmacy (p < 0.05) and a greater focus on basic skill development (p < 0.05). Student perceptions were evaluated using a survey instrument that had a useable response rate of 93%. Each course design element was utilized by a majority of respondents and was generally perceived as being beneficial to student learning. SummaryThe collected data indicate that the integrated course design facilitated the learning of applicable pharmaceutics-related topics and support the use of a number of different design elements. In addition, this study provides valuable insights for others providing professional-level pharmaceutics-related education and has helped guide our own course improvement efforts.

Book review: Pharmaceutical calculations. 5th ed.

This new edition has been updated and has new content, yet it retains a practical approach to pharmaceutical calculations. It follows a skill-building approach starting at basic mathematical concepts. Each chapter sets the scene with learning objectives and then systematically works through relevant content...

Design and Evaluation of Video Podcasts for Providing Online Feedback on Formative Pharmaceutical Calculations Assessments

Objective. To evaluate worked example video podcasts as a method of providing feedback to pharmacy interns for an online and formative pharmaceutical calculations assessment. Methods. A theory-informed approach based on multimedia learning theory was used to design video podcasts as feedback on a calculations examination. A mixed-methods evaluation completed by pharmacy interns enrolled in Ireland's National Pharmacy Internship Programme was used to establish cognitive and affective attitudes toward video podcasts compared with conventional written solutions. Results. The majority of students found video podcasts were clear, helpful for learning, easy to understand, and useful as a method of feedback. Majority reported that they felt positively about standard written solutions. The evaluation suggested distinct benefits for each kind of feedback, something that has not been previously reported. Thematic analysis of qualitative data indicated useful features of video podcasts, including clear explanation, step-by-step approach, and synchronization of audio and visual information. Conclusion. Respondents reported positive cognitive and affective attitudes toward video podcasts as online feedback. Video podcasts are a helpful and novel way of providing feedback on pharmaceutical calculations. A similar opinion of traditional written solutions suggests that students may benefit from both forms of feedback. Further study is required to identify the particular benefits associated with both kinds.

Use of condensed videos in a flipped classroom for pharmaceutical calculations: Student perceptions and academic performance

Background and purposeThe flipped teaching method was implemented through a series of multiple condensed videos for pharmaceutical calculations with student perceptions and academic performance assessed post-intervention. Educational activity and settingStudent perceptions from the intervention group were assessed via an online survey. Pharmaceutical exam scores of the intervention group were compared to the control group. The intervention group spent a greater amount of class time on active learning. FindingsThe majority of students (68.2%) thought that the flipped teaching method was more effective to learn pharmaceutical calculations than the traditional method. The mean exam scores of the intervention group were not significantly different than the control group (80.5 ± 15.8% vs 77.8 ± 16.8%; p = 0.253). DiscussionPrevious studies on the flipped teaching method have shown mixed results in regards to student perceptions and exam scores, where either student satisfaction increased or exam scores improved, but rarely both. SummaryThe flipped teaching method was rated favorably by a majority of students. The flipped teaching method resulted in similar outcomes in pharmaceutical calculations exam scores, and it appears to be an acceptable and effective option to deliver pharmaceutical calculations in a Doctor of Pharmacy program.

Comparison of Pharmaceutical Calculations Learning Outcomes Achieved Within a Traditional Lecture or Flipped Classroom Andragogy

Objective. To compare learning outcomes achieved from a pharmaceutical calculations course taught in a traditional lecture (lecture model) and a flipped classroom (flipped model). Methods. Students were randomly assigned to the lecture model and the flipped model. Course instructors, content, assessments, and instructional time for both models were equivalent. Overall group performance and pass rates on a standardized assessment (Pcalc OSCE) were compared at six weeks and at six months post-course completion. Results. Student mean exam scores in the flipped model were higher than those in the lecture model at six weeks and six months later. Significantly more students passed the OSCE the first time in the flipped model at six weeks; however, this effect was not maintained at six months. Conclusion. Within a 6 week course of study, use of a flipped classroom improves student pharmacy calculation skill achievement relative to a traditional lecture andragogy. Further study is needed to determine if the effect is maintained over time.

Effectiveness of flipped classroom instructional model in teaching pharmaceutical calculations

ObjectiveTo compare the effectiveness of teaching a pharmaceutical calculations course using a flipped versus traditional instructional method. MethodsFor the flipped method, students were required to watch recorded lectures before class, and class time was used for completing problems. For the traditional method, lectures were delivered in class followed by use of some class time for completing problems. The course material was divided into sections I and II. In 2011, sections I and II were taught by the flipped and traditional method, respectively. In 2012, both the sections were taught using the flipped method. Exam 1 and final exam part A tested the material covered in section I. Exam 2 and final exam part B tested the material covered in section II. Section II scores were compared between the 2011 and 2012 cohorts. Pre-admission criteria and section I scores were compared between the two cohorts to assess whether difference in section II scores could be attributed to differences in-class composition. Student perceptions about the flipped and the traditional instructional method were also examined. ResultsThe 2012 cohort (taught by flipped method) achieved a higher score on the section II material (exam 2, p = 0.013 and final exam part B, p = 0.001) compared to the 2011 cohort (taught by traditional method). Student perception data also indicated that a majority of students preferred the flipped method over the traditional method. ConclusionThis study demonstrates that a flipped classroom approach for teaching pharmaceutical calculations can improve student performance and satisfaction.

Using Simulation to Improve First-Year Pharmacy Students’ Ability to Identify Medication Errors Involving the Top 100 Prescription Medications

Objective. To evaluate first-year pharmacy students' ability to identify medication errors involving the top 100 prescription medications. Design. In the first quarter of a 3-quarter pharmacy self-care course, a didactic lecture on the most common prescribing and dispensing prescription errors was presented to first-year pharmacy students (P1) in preparation for a prescription review simulation done individually and as a group. In the following quarter, they were given a formal prescription review workshop before a second simulation involving individual and group review of a different set of prescriptions. Students were evaluated based on the number of correctly checked prescriptions and a self-assessment of their confidence in reviewing prescriptions. Assessment. All 63 P1 students completed the prescription review simulations. The individual scores did not significantly change, but group scores improved from 79 (16.2%) in the fall quarter to 98.6 (4.7%) in the winter quarter. Students perceived improvement of their prescription checking skills, specifically in their ability to fill a prescription on their own, identify prescribing and dispensing errors, and perform pharmaceutical calculations. Conclusion. A prescription review module consisting of a didactic lecture, workshop and simulation-based methods to teach prescription analysis was successful at improving first year pharmacy students' knowledge, confidence, and application of these skills.

Review on pharmaceutical calculations

Pharmaceutical calculations are the area of study that applies the basic principles of mathematics to the preparation and safe and effective use of pharmaceuticals. A pharmacist should have a thorough knowledge on weights and measures to have a complete understanding of various types of calculations involved in dispensing of dosage form. Therefore, the use of calculations in pharmacy is varied and broad-based. Calculations are performed by the pharmacists in traditional as well as in specialized practice settings. Whether a pharmaceutical product is produced in a large scale or a small scale pharmacist engage in calculations to achieve standards of quality. The preparation of various dosage forms and drug delivery systems containing carefully calculated, measured, verified, and labeled quantities of ingredients enables accurate dosage administration.

Effect of Collaborative vs Noncollaborative Quizzes on Examination Scores in a Pharmaceutical Calculations Course

To determine if midterm and final examination scores in a pharmaceutical calculations course differ among students who take weekly quizzes collaboratively, noncollaboratively, or half-collaboratively/half-noncollaboratively ("mixed"). One hundred twenty-three students enrolled in one of 4 laboratory sections: collaborative, noncollaborative, or mixed sections. Students working noncollaboratively completed a 15-minute quiz at the end of weekly laboratories. Students working collaboratively were randomly allocated into groups of 4 and worked independently for 5 minutes before working collaboratively for 10 minutes. Students in mixed sections worked collaboratively during one half of the semester and noncollaboratively during the other half of the semester in a crossover design to control for order effect. All students took midterm and final examinations independently. Mean scores for a pretest did not significantly differ between the 4 laboratory sections at the study's onset. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed a significant multivariate effect for the 9 laboratory quizzes in relation to group assignment. Mean scores on the midterm examination did not significantly differ between collaborative and noncollaborative groups. On the final examination, the two mixed groups significantly outperformed the collaborative group, but did not significantly differ from one another or from the noncollaborative group. Peer collaboration improves quiz scores, is favorably perceived by students and enhances their course satisfaction, but does not improve subsequent performance on midterm and final examinations taken noncollaboratively.

Assessment of nurses’ knowledge for possible occurrence of medication errors in Riyadh province, Saudi Arabia

A cross-sectional study using a questionnaire following snowball sampling method was conducted in Riyadh city and surrounding towns to detect insufficient knowledge contributing to the medication errors. The study was carried out in primary healthcare centres, general hospital and specialist hospitals. The participants included nurses of different nationalities, sex, education level, experience and ranks. Comparison was made between these groups to determine the highest and least knowledgeable groups to target them for continuing education. The questionnaire had four section. The first section of questionnaire recorded personal information of the nurses while the second, third and fourth sections contained eight statements each. The second section contained questions about basic pharmacology, the third section about pharmaceutical calculation and dosages while the fourth section had questions about commonly used drugs. All these statements were provided with true/false option for the participant to identify the correct statements. The results indicate that many of the participating nurses lack sufficient knowledge about pharmacology and pharmaceutical calculations. The weakest among the group were male nurses, nurses of Arab origin, nurses holding diploma and surprisingly, the head nurses. To conclude, the knowledge level of many nurses working in Riyadh province is poor. Continuing education programs should be initiated to educate nurses about pharmacology and pharmaceutical calculations.

Recent research in science teaching and learning.

Recent research in science teaching and learning.

Online assessments in pharmaceutical calculations for enhancing feedback and practice opportunities

ObjectivesThe objectives of the study were to evaluate the effectiveness of, and student preference for, an online approach to carrying out the formative assessments of a first-year pharmaceutical calculations course. Traditionally, these assessments were completed as in-class paper–pencil Scantron® quizzes. After the change, they were completed online as homework assignments with detailed feedback and ample opportunities for repeated practice once the assignments were graded. MethodsClasses of 2012, 2013, and 2014 students in the Doctor of Pharmacy program at Texas A&M Rangel College of Pharmacy completed these formative assessments online using WebCT or Blackboard. Individualized question sets were randomly constructed from a question pool containing multiple-choice questions and presented as online homework. The effectiveness of this approach was measured by comparing the overall course grades of these classes with the Classes of 2010 and 2011, who completed the paper–pencil Scantron® quizzes. Student preference for the online approach was assessed by a survey. ResultsThe course grades of Classes of 2012 and 2013 were significantly greater than those of Class of 2010. The differences in grades between the other classes were not significant. More than 90% of students favored the online approach and provided valuable comments about the benefits of detailed feedback and repeated practice. ConclusionsStudents preferred the online homework assignments. The online approach maintained or improved the student grade. Once the question pool is developed, instructors can provide detailed feedback to students very efficiently. Formative assessments for pharmaceutical calculations can be done online more conveniently than the traditional paper–pencil approach.