Petroleum-based Materials Research Articles

Development of pH-responsive active film materials based on purple corncob and its application in meat freshness monitoring

The use of petroleum-based food packaging materials is causing environmental damage and increasing greenhouse gas production. Consequently, there is a great interest in developing smart and sustainable alternative materials. In this study, an agricultural waste product (purple corncob extract, PCCE) was used as a raw material to prepare environmentally friendly pH-sensitive packaging materials. Natural pH-sensitive pigments (anthocyanins) and lignin-containing cellulose nanocrystals (LCNC) were extracted from the purple corncobs. A cationic biopolymer (chitosan) was used as a scaffolding material to assemble the film matrix. Composite film (LCNC-PCCE-chitosan) was produced using a simple solvent casting method. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy analyses showed that the PCCE and LCNC were well dispersed within the chitosan matrix and they interacted with the matrix through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions. The addition of LCNC improved the hydrophobicity and mechanical properties of the film and imparted antioxidant activity and UV-blocking properties. The presence of anthocyanins in the PCCE endowed the film with a sensitive and reversible pH response, which could be well used to monitor changes in the freshness of pork and shrimp products.

Impacts generated by the materials used in offshore wind technology on Human Health, Natural Environment and Resources

Offshore wind energy (OWE) shows rapid growth in reducing CO2 emissions. Although OWE is considered renewable several used materials in their activities, such as manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and dismantling of the wind farms, generate negative impacts on human health, the natural environment, and natural resources. To provide a better insight into these impacts on the OWE industry, this research generated the first detailed relationship between the main activities of the OWE industry, the turbine components, the main used materials, and the environmental impacts according to LCA's impact categories. Also, this study synthesized information about the impacts and energy consumption reported for the OWE industry, but also published for other industries about materials used in OWE. Their impacts have not been properly considered in the previous research. The results revealed that there is not enough information about LCA's assessment of the environmental effects generated in manufacturing some turbine components and during operation-maintenance activities. The results evidence that Steel is one of the main materials with the highest negative impacts and energy consumption, followed by Concrete, and petroleum-based materials. The findings of this research highlight the need for establishing strategies to replace the most contaminant materials with less harmful ones.

Preparation and characterization of sodium alginate/gelatin/Ag nanocomposite antibacterial film and its application in the preservation of tangerine

With the increasingly serious problem of environmental pollution caused by non-degradable petroleum-based packaging materials, there is an urgent need to develop an environmentally friendly packaging material. In this study, a food packaging coating with good antibacterial effect was prepared by adding silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) into a mixture of sodium alginate (SA) and gelatin (GL). The film formed by coating (SA/GL/Ag film) has good mechanical properties, and its tensile strength and elongation at break are 46.0 MPa and 17.1 %, respectively. By measuring the hydrophilic properties of the film, it was found that the SA/GL/Ag film has a very low water contact angle (WCA = 40.13°) and good water solubility. By measuring the inhibition zone size of the film against food-borne pathogens, the results showed that SA/GL/Ag film has significant antibacterial activity against both S. aureus and E. coli. Finally, the coating was used for the preservation of tangerines, and it was found that the SA/GL/Ag coating could slow down the loss of nutrients and prolong the shelf life of tangerines. In conclusion, SA/GL/Ag coating (film) has broad application prospects in the field of food packaging.

Life cycle assessment of transparent wood production using emerging technologies and strategic scale-up framework

Transparent wood, a sustainable material, holds the potential to replace conventional petroleum-based polymers because of its renewable and biodegradable properties. It has been recently used for construction, energy storage, flexible electronics, and packaging applications. Life cycle analysis (LCA) of transparent wood would provide the environmental impacts during its production and end-of-life (EOL). The cradle-to-gate analysis of transparent wood suggests that sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfite, hydrogen peroxide-based delignification (NaOH + Na2SO3 + H2O2 method), and epoxy infiltration lead to the lowest environmental impacts. It generates approximately 24 % less global warming potential and about 15 % less terrestrial acidification than sodium chlorite delignification and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) infiltration. The modelled industrial-scale production has lower electricity consumption (by 98.8 %) and environmental impacts than the laboratory scale (28 % less global warming potential and approximately 97 % less human toxicity). The EOL analysis of transparent wood showed reduced ecological impacts (107 times) in comparison to polyethylene, suggesting that it can be commercially adapted to replace conventional petroleum-based materials.

Hydrothermal method-assisted synthesis of self-crosslinked all-lignin-based hydrogels

Lignin, as the most abundant aromatic biopolymer, is being widely studied to replace phenol and some other petroleum-based materials in the polymer industry. However, the low substitution of lignin and high levels of additives greatly limited the applications of lignin-based materials. Herein, we first propose a simple but effective hydrothermal method assisted synthesis for the fabrication of self-crosslinked lignin-based hydrogels (Lig-Scgel) with super-high-contents (75 wt%) of lignin and controllable mechanical properties. The self-crosslink mechanism was inspired by the repolymerization of lignins under a hydrothermal environment. The employment of self-condensation of lignin subunits in the synthesis of Lig-Scgel can significantly improve the degree of crosslinking, thereby greatly reducing the addition of toxic crosslinkers. The appearances, microstructures, crosslink densities, and mechanical properties of Lig-Scgels can be well controlled by simply altering the hydrothermal temperatures. This strategy not only promotes green and large-scale applications of lignin but also provides insights in the development of environment-friendly polymeric materials.

Green and Low-Cost Natural Lignocellulosic Biomass-Based Carbon Fibers-Processing, Properties, and Applications in Sports Equipment: A Review.

At present, high-performance carbon fibers (CFs) are mainly produced from petroleum-based materials. However, the high costs and environmental problems of the production process prompted the development of new precursors from natural biopolymers. This review focuses on the latest research on the conversion of natural lignocellulosic biomass into precursor fibers and CFs. The influence of the properties, advantages, separation, and extraction of lignin and cellulose (the most abundant natural biopolymers), as well as the spinning process on the final CF performance are detailed. Recent strategies to further improve the quality of such CFs are discussed. The importance and application of CFs in sports equipment manufacturing are briefly summarized. While the large-scale production of CFs from natural lignocellulosic biomass and their applications in sports equipment have not yet been realized, CFs still provide a promising market prospect as green and low-cost materials. Further research is needed to ensure the market entry of lignocellulosic biomass-based CFs.

Polyurethane dispersions prepared from vegetable oil and their application as textile finishes

One of the major challenges facing the polymer industry now is finding sustainable and renewable alternatives to petroleum-based raw materials. To overcome such challenges, these novel water-borne polyurethane dispersions were prepared from bioresources (vegetable oil). Vegetable oil-based polyol is synthesized by epoxidation and hydroxylation methods from vegetable oil. Consequently, polyurethane dispersions are prepared by reacting the vegetable oil-based polyol with isophorone diisocyanate and dimethylol propionic acid to form the polyurethane prepolymer, which further reacts with 1,4-butanediol, and the final product is obtained by the addition of water. Fourier transform infrared analysis is used for the structural confirmation of the prepared vegetable oil-based polyol and polyurethane dispersions. A number of textile tests, including mechanical (tear strength (ASTM 1424) and tensile strength (ASTM D-5034)) and antibacterial, were conducted on poly/cotton plain weave fabrics after applying the synthesized dispersions by pad dry-cure methods. The hemolytic test method was used to check the biocompatibility of the synthesized dispersions. Results reveal that these finishes effectively increase the tensile strength of the treated fabric samples, such as white fabric samples, which show tensile strength values of (248, 255, 268 and 325 N from untreated 240 N) in the warp direction. The biological outcomes show the antibacterial and hemolytic activity of the dispersions are influenced by the presence of natural polyols in the dispersions. These results indicate that covering poly/cotton fabrics with vegetable oil-based polyurethane dispersions improve their tensile strength and antibacterial properties and they can replace petroleum-based polyurethane finishes.

Exploring the effects of cardanol-based co-curing agents with different phosphorus structures on the mechanical and flame-retardant properties of bismaleimide resin

Aiming to address the problems of flammability and brittleness of BMI and reduce the use of petroleum-based materials, three kinds of cardanol-based co-curing agents (CDPO, CDPC, CDCP) were synthesized and applied to prepare advanced BMI. Compared to the neat BMI, the modified BMI exhibited better thermal stability with higher decomposition temperatures and char yields. The BMI/CDCP-10 containing 4.5 wt% CDCP possessed the best flame retardancy with 50.4% reduction in PHRR, 27.5% reduction in THR and 21.2% reduction in TSP compared to those of neat BMI. Moreover, with the 4.5 wt% incorporation of CDPO, CDPC and CDCP, the impact strength of BMI was enhanced by 95%, 133.8% and 127.5% respectively, due to the flexible fatty chains and the decreased crosslinking density. The reason for different modification effects among modified BMI systems is studied from the structure of modifiers, finding that the phosphorylated cardanol with higher content of O and higher valence of P can be utilized to improve the mechanical property and fire safety of BMI. This work provides a new way to reduce the dependence on the petroleum-based materials and expand the application areas of BMI.

Preparation and Characterization of Dual-Modified Cassava Starch-Based Biodegradable Foams for Sustainable Packaging Applications.

Starch and its derivatives have recently emerged as a sustainable and renewable alternative for petroleum-based expanded polystyrene (EPS) and expanded polypropylene (EPP) foam materials. In this study, biodegradable foam materials were prepared from cassava starch using a novel dual modification technique, combining microwave treatment and freeze-drying. The foam materials were prepared from starch solutions microwaved over different intervals. The starch-based foam materials were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR) spectroscopy, and compression set test. Moreover, the water absorption capacities and density values of the foam materials were measured according to ASTM standards. The biodegradability test was carried out according to the aerobic compost environment test. The lowest water absorption capacities of 65.56% and 70.83% were exhibited for the cassava starch foam sample (MWB) prepared at a 20 s microwave treatment time and immersed in distilled water for 2 and 24 h, respectively. Furthermore, the lightweight cassava starch-based foam materials displayed density ranging from 124 to 245 kg/m3. The biodegradation test exhibited significant biodegradation of over 50% after 15 days for all the foam materials prepared. These results suggest that the dual-modified cassava starch-based biodegradable foams show potential in sustainable packaging applications by replacing petroleum-based materials.

Synthesis, Characterization and Properties of Soybean Oil-Based Polyurethane.

At present, the consumption of polyurethane is huge in various industries. As a result, it has become a research hotspot to use environmentally friendly and renewable bio-based raw materials (instead of petroleum-based raw materials) to prepare polyurethane. In this paper, epoxy soybean oil (ESO) was used as raw material, and polyethylene glycol (PEG-600) was used for ring opening. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) analysis proved that soybean oil-based polyester polyols was prepared. Soybean oil-based polyurethane (SPU) was synthesized by the reaction of the soybean oil-based polyol with isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI), so as to save energy and protect the environment. The properties of SPU films were adjusted by changing the R value (the molar ration of -NCO/-OH) and the film forming temperature. The chemical structure and properties of the SPU were characterized by FTIR, 1H NMR, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results show that the mechanical strength, water contact angle, microphase separation degree, barrier property, and thermal stability of SPU films gradually increase, while the transparency, oxygen permeability coefficient and moisture permeability coefficient of SPU films gradually decrease with the increase of R value and film forming temperature.

Molecular manipulation of lignin by phytogenic protein to enable its multifunctionality for water resistance and anti-mildew adhesive

Wood products are widely used in furniture and building materials, but the adhesives used to bond wood components are mainly formaldehyde-based resins, which are toxic, and most of their raw materials come from non-renewable resources. Replacing aldehyde-based adhesives with renewable materials is challenging for the development of wood-based panels. Here, we designed an aldehyde-free multifunctional adhesive with a rigid structure based on lignin and phytogenic protein. To enhance the defects of current phytogenic protein adhesives, as their poor water resistance and vulnerability to microbial erosion, this paper used phytogenic protein to regulate lignin and synthesized a triblock copolymer of three kinds of agricultural and forestry wastes, including lignin, camellia meal, and soybean meal, and finally made it form a densely cross-linked structure. This covalent crosslinking and block copolymerization strategy endowed the adhesive with a bonding strength of 1.03 MPa, which is comparable to that of commercial adhesives. It also showed good inherent mildew resistance, and its performance was better than previously reported adhesives that used chemical preservatives. This efficient, environmentally friendly, and low-cost design strategy can be used to convert low-cost natural biomass resources into high-value green products to alleviate environmental pollution and energy concerns associated with the use of petroleum-based materials.

(+)-Limonene-Lactam: Synthesis of a Sustainable Monomer for Ring-Opening Polymerization to Novel, Biobased Polyamides.

In this work, the synthesis of limonene lactam starting from limonene epoxide and its subsequent ring-opening polymerization (ROP) to novel polyamides is presented. Sustainable, biobased materials are gaining interest as replacements of conventional, petroleum-based materials, and even more important, as high-performance materials for new applications. Terpenes-structurally advanced biobased compounds-are therefore of great interest. In this research, limonene lactam, a novel biobased monomer for preparing sustainable polyamides via ROP, can be synthesized. Limonene lactam possesses an isopropylene and a methyl side group, thus stereocenters posing special challenges and requirements for synthesis, analysis and polymerization. However, these difficult-to-synthesize structural elements can generate novel polymers with unique properties, e.g., functionalizability. In this work, a sustainable monomer synthesis is established, and simplified to industrial needs. For the sterically demanding in-bulk ROP to limonene polyamides, various initiators and conditions are tested. Polyamides with more than 100 monomer units are successfully synthesized and confirmed via nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and gel permeations chromatography (GPC). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) are used to analyze its thermal properties. In summary, a sustainable monomer synthesis is established, and promising polyamides with intact double bond and interesting thermal properties are achieved.

Self-healable hydrophobic films fabricated by incorporating natural wax into cellulose matrix

Biodegradable cellulose films have high mechanical strength, excellent flexibility, and good transparency, which are potential candidate materials to replace petroleum-based packaging materials and disposable products. However, the poor hydrophobicity of cellulose films seriously limits their practical application. Herein, self-healing hydrophobic films were fabricated by incorporating natural wax into cellulose matrix. The effects of types of natural waxes, wax content, and annealing temperature on the performances of films were systematically investigated. The resultant films exhibited good hydrophobicity (water contact angle: ∼120°), and high tensile strength (>120 MPa), which could be completely biodegraded in natural soil (within 81 days). Importantly, the self-healing of hydrophobic films could be achieved by releasing wax from inside to surface of cellulose matrix during the annealing process. This work demonstrated a facile strategy for designing and developing hydrophobic and self-healable cellulose-based materials for packaging materials to replace petrochemical plastics, which is conducive to alleviate environmental problems caused by nondegradable plastic pollution.

Tailoring the Barrier Properties of PLA: A State-of-the-Art Review for Food Packaging Applications.

It is now well recognized that the production of petroleum-based packaging materials has created serious ecological problems for the environment due to their resistance to biodegradation. In this context, substantial research efforts have been made to promote the use of biodegradable films as sustainable alternatives to conventionally used packaging materials. Among several biopolymers, poly(lactide) (PLA) has found early application in the food industry thanks to its promising properties and is currently one of the most industrially produced bioplastics. However, more efforts are needed to enhance its performance and expand its applicability in this field, as packaging materials need to meet precise functional requirements such as suitable thermal, mechanical, and gas barrier properties. In particular, improving the mass transfer properties of materials to water vapor, oxygen, and/or carbon dioxide plays a very important role in maintaining food quality and safety, as the rate of typical food degradation reactions (i.e., oxidation, microbial development, and physical reactions) can be greatly reduced. Since most reviews dealing with the properties of PLA have mainly focused on strategies to improve its thermal and mechanical properties, this work aims to review relevant strategies to tailor the barrier properties of PLA-based materials, with the ultimate goal of providing a general guide for the design of PLA-based packaging materials with the desired mass transfer properties.

Itaconic-Acid-Based Sustainable Poly(ester amide) Resin for Stereolithography.

Material science is recognized as a frontrunner in achieving a sustainable future, owing to its primary reliance upon petroleum-based chemical raw materials. Several efforts are made to implement common renewable feedstocks as an alternative to common fossil resources. For this purpose, additive manufacturing (AM) represents promising and effective know-how for the replacement of high energy- and resource-demanding processes with more environmentally friendly practices. This work presents a novel biobased ink for stereolithography, which has been formulated by mixing a photocurable poly(ester amide) (PEA) obtained from renewable resources with citrate and itaconate cross-linkers and appropriate photopolymerization initiators, terminators, and dyes. The mechanical features and the relative biocompatibility of 3D-printed objects have been carefully studied to evaluate the possible resin implementation in the field of the textile fashion industry.

Eco Valorization of Eucalyptus globulus Bark and Branches through Liquefaction

Eucalyptus globulus forest residues, bark, and branches, were characterized by wet chemistry methods and involved in the liquefaction process using a glycerol-ethylene glycol reaction mixture (1:1, v/v) catalyzed by strong mineral acid (3% H2SO4) or strong mineral base (6% KOH). The effect of the reaction conditions (temperature and duration) and the particle size on the yield of liquefied products have been evaluated. Acid catalysis revealed remarkably higher yields (25–50%) than when using basic catalyst. It was considered that bark was more vulnerable to liquefaction with respect to particle size than branches. Too high temperatures (>180 °C) are not advantageous regarding the liquefaction yields and, therefore, temperatures around 160–180 °C would be preferable. The best yield for the bark sample (>80 mesh fraction) was obtained at 180 °C for 60 min (61.6%), while for the branches the best yield was obtained at 160 °C for 60 min (62.2%). Under compromised conditions (180 °C for 60 min), the fine fraction (>80 mesh) of bark and branches did not show significant differences between their liquefaction yields and can be processed together while adjusting the suitable processing time. The main advantage of the use of these residues instead of solid wood is that it would bring the Forest managing companies a much higher income for their wastes that are usually burned and the use of lignocellulosic materials in detriment of petroleum-based materials for the production of polymers would make industry less dependent on oil prices fluctuations.

Adopted ion-pair effect to construct bicontinuous starch-based gel and its application in humidity sensitivity and strain-responsiveness

Along with the growing consume of disposable electronic devices, the development of biodegradable and sustainable resources is highly desired to address the contaminated footprints from petroleum-based materials. However, it is still a challenge to overcome obstacles of the dispersion of additives and flexibility for fabricating starch-based strain-responsiveness device. Herein, we developed a facile method to fabricate mechanically stretchable starch-based gel (SGZn gel) with humidity-conductivity through thermal mixing starch and ions-pairing solution, which was a kind of transparent gel without region of stress concentration and hysteresis effect. Attributed to disorganization effect and dipole interaction of ion pairs, SGZn gels achieved homogeneous matrix, increased elongation at break (243%) and high transparency (87%). Meanwhile, the continuous ionic conductivity paths in gel matrix constructed by ions-pairing solution could endow SGZn gels with excellent humidity sensitivity, obtaining an ionic conductivity of 10−3 S/cm after absorbing 10 wt% water from humidity environment. Benefiting from these features, SGZn gels were capable of sensing human motions, both tiny motion in fingers and intense force in feet, satisfying the basic requirements for sustainable wearable devices. This study provided a facile approach for preparing multifunctional starch-based gels to meet the requirements in various applications such as flexible material, humidity detection and smart devices.

Toxic reactive oxygen species enhanced chemodynamic therapy by copper metal-nanocellulose based nanocatalysts

When compared with traditional petroleum-based materials, bio-based materials show greater application potential in the field of biomedicine owing to the good biocompatibility, in specifical, the application of natural macromolecular polymers in chemotherapeutics has become a hot topic in anticancer treatment. In this study, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were selected as carriers, and Au nanoparticles (NPs) were directly conjugated on their surface, with the highly reactive Cu2+ ions serving as an ion–ligand bridge, to construct a multifunctional nanocatalyst. These findings suggest that the nanosystem delivers a large amount of highly reactive Cu2+ ions (3.75 wt%) and DOX (7.71 wt%) by the surface loading of cellulose nanocrystals, which greatly improves ROS yield and promotes the application of the Fenton reaction system in cancer therapy.

Effect of surface treatment of cotton fibers on the durability of polylactic acid/cotton-fiber biocomposites

Composites composed entirely of biodegradable polymer materials such as polylactic acid (PLA) and natural fibers are attracting attention as alternatives to petroleum-based plastic materials. Since fibers have low dispersibility in bulk resins such as PLA, the use of fiber surface treatment agents can improve the fiber dispersibility and the physical properties of the composites. In this study, accelerated degradation tests were conducted at 60°C for upto 2000 h on specimens containing cotton fibers at a ratio of 40 wt% to the PLA matrix. The results showed that the interfacial adhesion between the PLA matrix and cotton fibers could be improved by coating the cotton fibers with a reactive surface treatment agent. Furthermore, the addition of 5 wt% of epoxidized linseed oil, a medium-molecular-weight reactive surface treatment agent, not only promoted the crystallization of the PLA/cotton-fiber composites at 60°C, but also improved the thermal and mechanical properties with the degradation time.

Cellulose Nanoparticles Prepared by Ionic Liquid-Assisted Method Improve the Properties of Bionanocomposite Films

Bionanocomposites have garnered wide interest from the packaging industry as a biocompatible alternative to non-biodegradable petroleum-based synthetic materials. This study presents a simple and eco-friendly alternative to produce cellulose nanoparticles using a protic ionic liquid, and the effects of their incorporation in cassava starch and chitosan films are evaluated. Bionanocomposite films are prepared using the solvent casting method and are characterized using X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, zeta potential, thermogravimetric analysis, and transmission electron microscopy. The achieved yield of cellulose nanoparticles is 27.82%, and the crystalline index is 67.66%. The nanoparticles’ incorporation (concentration from 0.1 to 0.3% wt) results in a progressive reduction of water vapor permeability up to 49.50% and 26.97% for starch and chitosan bionanocomposite films, respectively. The starch films with 0.1% cellulose nanoparticles exhibit significantly increased flexibility compared to those without any addition. The nanoparticles’ incorporation in chitosan films increases the thermal stability without affecting the mechanical properties. The cellulose nanoparticles obtained using protic ionic liquid, as an alternative pathway avoiding the classic acid hydrolysis can be a simple, sustainable, and viable method to produce bionanocomposites with tailored properties, useful for applications in the packaging industry.Graphical Abstract