Control Of Insect Pests Research Articles

Viral diversity in the European spruce bark beetle Ips typographus as revealed through high-throughput sequencing

The European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus is the economically most important biotic damaging agent of Norway spruce. Efforts to delimit beetle populations by trapping, application of chemical insecticides, or mechanically excluding the beetles from their breeding substrates are often expensive and mostly inadequate. The use of natural enemies and viruses is receiving increased research interest as a potential environmentally healthy approach to control pest insect populations, but practical biocontrol methods against I. typographus are still lacking. To learn more about putative enemies of this pest species, we used high-throughput sequencing to determine its viral community using beetles collected at a Finnish forest site. The analysis revealed a diverse community of RNA viruses associated with I. typographus, including novel viruses that could be affiliated with the classified families Benyviridae, Metaviridae, Narnaviridae, Partitiviridae, Phenuiviridae, Solemoviridae, Virgaviridae, Tombusviridae, and proposed family Spiciviridae, as well as unclassified “quenyaviruses”. Based on phylogenetic analysis, the viruses were distinct from, but resembled, unclassified viruses originating from other arthropods, and many of them were distantly related to previously described viruses. The possibility that the viruses could be hosted by other organisms than the beetle itself (associated fungi, nematodes and protozoa) was addressed by bioinformatic and phylogenetic analyses and is discussed.

The effect of chitin on the effectiveness of Beauveria bassiana formulation product to control cocoa pod borer in vitro

Fungal entomopathogens are suggested to be used as a bioinsecticide due to their biological persistence and ecological friendliness. Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungus that can effectively control insect pests, including cocoa pod borer. This study aims to determine the level of effectivity of the B. bassiana (Bb) formulation product from Palu against cocoa pod borer pupae in vitro . This research used a completely randomized design (CRD) consisting of two factors: conidia concentrations and chitin treatments, which were repeated thrice. The conidia concentrations consisted of two levels, that were 106 and 107 conidia/mL. The chitin treatment included seven treatments: isolate from Kediri without formulation with chitin (Bb-K), isolate from Palu without formulation with chitin (Bb-P0), four formulations of isolates from Palu with the addition of chitin to various growth media (Bb-P1, Bb-P2, Bb-P3, and Bb-P4), and control (without Bb suspension). Bb-P0 and Bb-P2 treatments at a concentration of 107conidia/mL began to colonize CPB on the third day after the treatment application, while the other formulations started on the fifth day. However, Bb-P0 showed the lowest infection rate at the end of the observation. Contrarily, the data on the pupa-infected ratio showed that the Bb-P2 treatment was the highest compared to other treatments. It conformed to the adult emergence ratio that Bb-P2 exhibited the lowest, which means Bb-P2 has the most virulence of other formula. The result showed that PDA and PDB media-supplemented chitin was the most effective for culturing B. bassiana origin Palu before mass production.

Key residues involved in the interaction between chlorpyrifos and a chemosensory protein in Rhopalosiphum padi: Implication for tracking chemical residues via insect olfactory proteins

The development of advanced biosensors for tracking chemical residues and detecting environmental pollution is of great significance. Insect chemical sensory proteins, including chemosensory proteins (CSPs), are easy to synthesize and purify and have been used to design proteins for specific biosensor applications. Chlorpyrifos is one of the most commonly used chemicals for controlling insect pests in agriculture. This organophosphate is harmful to aquatic species and has long-term negative consequences for the ecosystem. CSPs can bind and carry a variety of environmental chemicals, including insecticides. However, the mechanism by which CSPs bind to insecticides in aphids has not been clarified. In this study, we discovered that RpCSP1 from Rhopalosiphum padi has a higher affinity for chlorpyrifos, with a Ki value of 4.763 ± 0.491 μM. Multispectral analysis revealed the physicochemical binding mechanism between RpCSP1 and chlorpyrifos. Computational simulation analysis demonstrated that the main factor promoting the development of the RpCSP1-chlorpyrifos complex is polar solvation energy. Four residues (Arg33, Glu94, Gln145, Lys153) were essential in facilitating the interaction between RpCSP1 and chlorpyrifos. Our research has improved knowledge of the relationship between CSPs and organophosphorus pesticides. This knowledge contributes to the advancement of biosensor chips for tracking chemical residues and detecting environmental pollution through the use of CSPs.

The Bombyx mori singed Gene Is Involved in the High-Temperature Resistance of Silkworms.

Temperature is an important factor in the growth, development, survival, and reproduction of organisms. The high-temperature resistance mechanism of insects may be significant for use in the prevention and control of insect pests. The silkworm, Bombyx mori, is an important Lepidoptera model species for studies on pest control in agriculture and forestry. We identified a gene in B. mori, the B. mori singed (Bmsn) gene, which is involved in the high-temperature resistance of silkworms. Sn proteins are highly conserved among species in many taxonomic groups. The overexpression of the Bmsn gene promoted the proliferation of silkworm cells, reduced oxidation, and reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species under stress. Interfering with the Bmsn gene had the opposite result. We constructed a transgenic B. mori strain that overexpressed the Bmsn gene. The physiological traits of the transgenic strain were significantly improved, and it had stronger high-temperature resistance. The Bmsn gene is involved in the process by which fat bodies respond to high-temperature stress. These findings provide insights into the mechanism of high-temperature resistance of insects and offer a new perspective on agricultural and forestry pest control.

Botanical extracts control the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum boninense in smallholder production of common bean

Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum spp. remains an intractable problem in the most common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) production areas worldwide and can cause total yield loss. Many smallholder farmers are familiar with using botanical extracts to control insect pests; however, there is less familiarity with their use to control fungal diseases due to a lack of evidence. Here, we demonstrate that anthracnose could be controlled effectively by pesticidal plant species that are used for insect control. In laboratory trials, water extracts from 11 plant species could inhibit fungal growth (100%) and spore germination (75–100%) equally well to two commercially available fungicides, the synthetic Mancolaxyl and biofungicide Bioderma. In screenhouse trials, anthracnose disease was reduced by the extracts of three plant species. Moreover, bean crop growth in these botanical treatments did not differ significantly from that observed in the commercial fungicide treated plants. Field trials in a smallholder community reporting severe problems with anthracnose showed an effect similar to the screenhouse results. Field trials resulted in bean seed yields approximately 350 kg/ha higher in bean plants treated with Azadirachta indica and Lippia javanica at 10% w/v compared to the negative control untreated plants. In all trials, botanical extracts were as effective as commercially available fungicides, suggesting that these botanical extracts could provide dual-purpose pest and disease management for anthracnose and crop pest insects. The outcomes of this research show that prospects for using locally available resources to control anthracnose on common bean are credible and can be combined with controlling insect pests.

Entomopathogens and their role in insect pest management

Agricultural production faces significant challenges due to the loss of crop yields, highlighting the need for improvements in pest management methods to enhance productivity. Crop growers are increasingly pressured to minimize the use of chemical pesticides without compromising yields. However, managing pests has become more challenging due to pesticide resistance and limited product availability. Consequently, there is an urgent requirement for alternative approaches. Entomopathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes emerge as promising alternatives to broad-spectrum chemical insecticides. They have been widely employed to control insect pests in cultivated crops, employing successful strategies such as augmentation and classical biological control. These methods involve applying or introducing bacteria, baculoviruses, fungi, and nematodes. Utilizing entomopathogens offers numerous benefits beyond their effectiveness. These advantages encompass the capacity to treat expansive areas with a sole application, ensuring safety for both humans and non-target organisms. Additionally, their use leads to decreased pesticide residues in food, the conservation of natural enemies, and a boost in biodiversity within managed ecosystems. Entomopathogens present a viable solution by offering effective pest control while addressing environmental, human health, and ecosystem sustainability concerns. The primary emphasis of this review is on the present condition of bio-formulations, the pathogenicity associated with entomopathogens, their mode of action, and the possible implementation of diverse microbial formulations aimed at achieving sustainable pest management.

Negative association between host plant suitability and the fitness cost of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bacillales:Bacillaceae).

Transgenic crops producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins are commonly used for controlling insect pests. Nearby refuges of non-Bt host plants play a central role in delaying the evolution of resistance to Bt toxins by pests. Pervasive fitness costs associated with resistance, which entail lower fitness of resistant than susceptible individuals in refuges, can increase the ability of refuges to delay resistance. Moreover, these costs are affected by environmental factors such as host plant suitability, implying that manipulating refuge plant suitability could improve the success of the refuge strategy. Based on results from a previous study of Trichoplusia ni resistant to Bt sprays, it was proposed that low-suitability host plants could magnify costs. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the association between host plant suitability and fitness costs for 80 observations from 30 cases reported in 18 studies of 8 pest species from 5 countries. Consistent with the hypothesis, the association between plant suitability and fitness cost was negative. With plant suitability scaled to range from 0 (low) to 1 (high), the expected cost was 20.7% with a suitability of 1 and the fitness cost increased 2.5% for each 0.1 decrease in suitability. The most common type of resistance to Bt toxins involves mutations affecting a few types of midgut proteins to which Bt toxins bind to kill insects. A better understanding of how such mutations interact with host plant suitability to generate fitness costs could be useful for enhancing the refuge strategy and sustaining the efficacy of Bt crops.

Biopesticides: Uses and importance in insect pest control: A review

Biopesticides: Uses and importance in insect pest control: A review

Bioactivity of Plant Nanoemulsions against Stored-Product Insects (Order Coleoptera): A Review1

Abstract As the risks arising from the use of chemical pesticides increase, researchers are continuously exploring alternatives that are safer for humans and the environment. Among these alternatives is the use of plant extracts; however, plant extracts have various disadvantages, including the instability of their compounds that evaporate with time, thereby reducing their effectiveness. With the development of nanotechnology and its applications, researchers are focused on testing the performance of plant-based nanocomposites for eliminating pests. Numerous issues with agricultural and insect pest control can be addressed by using nanotechnology, including increasing the physical stability, water dispersion, and bioavailability of oil emulsions and coating the desired surface area with small oil droplets. Thus, issues with essential oil application, such as volatility, low water solubility, and oxidation, can be resolved by using nanoformulations. These nanoformulations progressively release active ingredients on site, reducing the toxicity for nontarget species and demonstrating their potential as substitutes for synthetic pesticides in the management of stored-grain pests. Research on nanoemulsions from plant sources and their role in controlling stored-product coleopteran insects was reviewed with emphasis on articles from 2014 through 2023. This review compiles important data for this field of research, providing information for design of future studies.

The Hidden World of Insect-Plant Interactions: a review

This review examines the hidden world of plant-insect interactions by emphasizing on the sensory perception and behavior of phytophagous insects, nutritional influence on insect reproduction, host plant resistance, Insects, weed and crop interaction, Insect pollinator plant interaction, tri-trophic interaction, and insect biotechnology. It explores how insects use sensory cues to forage for food, find mates, perceive dangers, and navigate their environment. It also examines the influence of host plants on insect behavior and the use of chemical cues for communication. The potential use of semio-chemicals in pest management for sustainable agriculture is highlighted. Nutritional factors and their impact on insect reproductive success are also discussed, emphasizing the need for balanced diets. The different categories of host plant resistance and their effects on insects are examined. The interdependent relationships between insects, plants, and weeds in agricultural ecosystems are explored, with a focus on the role of insect pollinators. The decline of insect pollinators and the importance of studying them are emphasized. The importance of tri-trophic interactions in maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity is discussed. Moreover, the role of biotechnological techniques like genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and epigenetics in understanding insect plant interactions as well as developing insect pest control strategies is discussed. The potential use of natural products produced by plants in environmentally friendly pest control methods is also examined. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive exploration of insect-plant interactions and the potential for sustainable pest control methods.

Knockdown of MAPK p38-linked genes increases the susceptibility of Chilo suppressalis larvae to various transgenic Bt rice lines

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins have provided exceptional control of agricultural insect pests, however, over reliance on the proteins would potentially contribute to the development of field tolerance. Developing new sustainable insect pest control methods that target the mechanisms underlying Bt tolerance can potentially support the Bt control paradigm while also providing insights into basic insect physiology. The MAPK p38 pathway is strongly associated with Bt tolerance in Chilo suppressalis, a major pest of rice. To gain insights into how this pathway impacts tolerance, high-throughput screening of C. suppressalis larval midguts initially identified eight novel target genes. Increased larval sensitivity to the transgenic cry1Ca rice strain T1C-19 was observed following RNA interference-mediated knockdown of four of the genes, Cscnc, Csgcp, Cszfp26 and CsZMYM1. Similar enhanced sensitivity to the TT51 (expressing Cry1Ab/1Ac) and T2A-1 (expressing Cry2Aa) transgenic rice lines occurred when Cszfp26 and CsZMYM1 were knocked down. All four target genes are downstream of the MAPK p38 pathway but do not participate in negative feedback loop of the pathway. These results implicate Cscnc, Csgcp, Cszfp and CsZMYM1 in the C. suppressalis transgenic cry1Ca rice tolerance mechanism regulated by MAPK p38. These findings further enhance our understanding of the MAPK p38-dependent molecular mechanisms underlying Bt tolerance in C. suppressalis and open new avenues of tolerance management to develop.

Perfect cooperative pest control via nano-pesticide and natural predator: High predation selectivity and negligible toxicity toward predatory stinkbug

The improper use of synthetic pesticides has caused adverse effects on global ecosystems and human health. As a part of sustainable pest management strategy, natural predators, along with nano-pesticides, have made significant contributions to ecological agriculture. The cooperative application of both approaches may overcome their limitations, substantially reducing pesticide application while controlling insect pests efficiently. Herein, the current study introduced a cationic star polymer (SPc) to prepare two types of nano-pesticides, which were co-applied with predatory stinkbugs Picromerus lewisi to achieve perfect cooperative pest control. The SPc exhibited nearly no toxicity against predatory stinkbugs at the working concentration, but it led to the death of predatory stinkbugs at extremely high concentration with the lethal concentration 50 (LC50) value of 13.57 mg/mL through oral feeding method. RNA-seq analysis revealed that the oral feeding of SPc could induce obvious stress responses, leading to stronger phagocytosis, exocytosis, and energy synthesis to ultimately result in the death of predatory stinkbugs. Then, the broflanilide and chlorobenzuron were employed to prepare the self-assembled nano-pesticides via hydrogen bond and Van der Waals force, and the complexation with SPc broke the self-aggregated structures of pesticides and reduced their particle sizes down to nanoscale. The bioactivities of prepared nano-pesticides were significantly improved toward common cutworm Spodoptera litura with the corrected mortality increase by approximately 30%. Importantly, predatory stinkbugs exhibited a strong predation selectivity for alive common cutworms to reduce the exposure risk of nano-pesticides, and the nano-pesticides showed negligible toxicity against predators. Thus, the nano-pesticides and predatory stinkbugs could be applied simultaneously for efficient and sustainable pest management. The current study provides an excellent precedent for perfect cooperative pest control via nano-pesticide and natural predator.

The landscape of fear in cattle farms? How the presence of barn swallow influences the activity of pest flies

Abstract Insectivorous birds are key suppliers of crucial ecosystem services, especially important for pest control in agricultural systems, and are globally decreasing at a fast rate. Among them, the declining barn swallow Hirundo rustica is particularly linked to cattle farms, where it is impacted by changes in livestock husbandry practices. The presence of swallows in cattle sheds might contribute to control insect pests, but such an effect had never been explored. With this work, we evaluated the potential control effect exerted by barn swallow on economically relevant pest insects, filth flies. To assess whether swallows inside the cattle sheds influence the activity rate of pest flies (especially Musca domestica and Stomoxys calcitrans), we assessed the relative abundance of swallows and flies over 16 weeks in nine different cattle farms in Non valley (Trentino, North‐east Italy), either occupied or not by nesting swallows. From April 2022 to August 2022, we collected weekly data on the activity rate of flies by placing eight white spot cards inside each of nine cattle sheds and counting the deposition of faecal and regurgitation spots by flies. Simultaneously, we collected weekly data regarding swallow occurrence, brood size, number and age of chicks. We applied generalised linear mixed effect models on the activity rate of flies, with spot card and farm as nested random effects, to account for potential random variability between cards and farms. We then assessed through model selection the effect of number of cows, number of swallows, and temperature or week alternatively. Temperature and week were modelled also in interaction with the number of swallows. Fly activity rate followed a seasonal trend with a peak in July, which was markedly lower where swallows were present. Moreover, the positive relationship between flies and temperature was lessened when swallows were abundant. Synthesis and applications. Barn swallows are effective biological control agents for lowering pest fly activity in livestock farms. Farmers were actively involved in swallow conservation within their sheds, also with a shared memorandum‐of‐intent. Harnessing the ecosystem services supplied by farmland birds could bring positive outcomes for people and biodiversity.

Bio-efficacy of Xanthium strumarium L. Essential Oil against Castor Semilooper, Achaea janata L. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Background: Although use of synthetic insecticides causes excellent control of insect pests, it leads to adverse effects on non-target organisms as well as the environment. The present study determining the chemical composition and insecticidal activities of essential oil extracted from the leaves of rough cocklebur, Xanthium strumarium and its bioefficacy against the castor semilooper, Achaea janata shall show a new dimension in formulating an ecofriendly management strategy towards castor crop. Methods: Xanthium strumarium leaf essential oil was isolated through hydro-distillation method using Clevenger apparatus and the chemical composition was analysed using GC-MS. The ovicidal and insecticidal activity of the essential oil was determined by dipping and topical application methods, respectively. Larval feeding deterrence and growth inhibitory properties of the essential oil was evaluated through the diet incorporation method. Result: GC-MS analysis of the X. strumarium essential oil revealed the presence of 14 chemical compounds, of which the majority are the terpenes (94.48%). The LC50 values in terms of ovicidal and insecticidal activities were recorded to be 69.70 µL/mL and 0.30 µL/larvae, respectively. The fifty per cent larval feeding deterrence (DC50) and growth inhibitory properties (EC50) were recorded to be 1.88 µl/cm² and 213.94 µL/mL, respectively.

Functional Response of Chrysoperla Zastrowi Sillemi (Esben-Peterson) on Lipaphis erysimi (Keltenbach)

Biological control of insect pests depends upon predating potential of natural enemies, which in turn relate to their functional response that is key to selection of a proper species for the biological control programs. The main aim of the study was to access the functional response of second instar grub of C. zastrowi sillemi (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) on Raya (Brassica juncea) aphid Lipaphis erysimi (Keltenbach). Five different predator: prey densities of aphids (1:50, 1:100: 1:150, 1:200 and 1:250) were taken and results indicated the type-II functional curve response by logistic regression analysis of C. zastrowi sillemi on L. erysimi. Hollings Type II functional response signifies that the rate of prey consumption by a predator rises as prey density increases, but eventually remains constant in spite of increase in prey density. The aphids consumption, search rate (a`) and maximum predation rate (1/Th) was recorded less (7.36, 0.06 and 0.40) as compared (7.56, 0.068and 0.467) when grubs fed on artificial diet. However, time taken to handle a prey by second instar grub was more (2.55) on natural diet but less (2.17) on artificial diet.

Insecticidal activity of the spider neurotoxin PPTX-04 through modulating insect voltage-gated sodium channel

Ion channels on cell membrane are molecular targets of more than half peptide neurotoxins from spiders. From Pardosa pseudoannulata, a predatory spider on a range of insect pests, we characterized a peptide neurotoxin PPTX-04 with an insecticidal activity. PPTX-04 showed high toxicity to Nilaparvata lugens, a main prey of P. pseudoannulata, and the toxicity was not affected by the resistance to etofenprox (IUPAC chemical name:1-ethoxy-4-[2-methyl-1-[(3-phenoxyphenyl)methoxy]propan-2-yl]benzene, purity: 99%). On N. lugens voltage-gated sodium channel NlNav1 expressed in Xenopus oocytes, PPTX-04 prolonged the channel opening and induced tail currents, which is similar to pyrethroid insecticides. However, PPTX-04 potency on NlNav1 was not affected by mutations conferring pyrethroid resistance in insects, which revealed that PPTX-04 and pyrethroids should act on different receptors in NlNav1. In contrast, two mutations at the extracellular site 4 significantly reduced PPTX-04 potency, which indicated that PPTX-04 would act on a potential receptor containing the site 4 in NlNav1. The result from the molecular docking supported the conclusion that the binding pocket of PPTX-04 in NlNav1 should contain the site 4. In summary, PPTX-04 had high insecticidal activity through acting on a distinct receptor site in insect Nav, and was a potential resource to control insect pests and manage resistance to pyrethroids.

Benchmarking of computer vision methods for energy-efficient high-accuracy olive fly detection on edge devices

The automation of insect pest control activities implies the use of classifiers to monitor the temporal and spatial evolution of the population using computer vision algorithms. In this regard, the popularisation of supervised learning methods represents a breakthrough in this field. However, their claimed effectiveness is reduced regarding working in real-life conditions. In addition, the efficiency of the proposed models is usually measured in terms of their accuracy, without considering the actual context of the sensing platforms deployed at the edge, where image processing must occur. Hence, energy consumption is a key factor in embedded devices powered by renewable energy sources such as solar panels, particularly in energy harvesting platforms, which are increasingly popular in smart farming applications. In this work, we perform a two-fold performance analysis (accuracy and energy efficiency) of three commonly used methods in computer vision (e.g., HOG+SVM, LeNet-5 CNN, and PCA+Random Forest) for object classification, targeting the detection of the olive fly in chromatic traps. The training and testing of the models were carried out using pictures captured in various realistic conditions to obtain more reliable results. We conducted an exhaustive exploration of the solution space for each evaluated method, assessing the impact of the input dataset and configuration parameters on the learning process outcomes. To determine their suitability for deployment on edge embedded systems, we implemented a prototype on a Raspberry Pi 4 and measured the processing time, memory usage, and power consumption. The results show that the PCA-Random Forest method achieves the highest accuracy of 99%, with significantly lower processing time (approximately 6 and 48 times faster) and power consumption (approximately 10 and 44 times lower) compared with its competitors (LeNet-5-based CNN and HOG+SVM).

Efficacy of Wolbachia-based mosquito control: Predictions of a spatially discrete mathematical model.

Wolbachia is an endosymbiont bacterium present in many insect species. When Wolbachia-carrying male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes mate with non-carrier females, their embryos are not viable due to cytoplasmic incompatibility. This phenomenon has been exploited successfully for the purpose of controlling mosquito populations and the spread of mosquito-borne illnesses: Wolbachia carriers are bred and released into the environment. Because Wolbachia is not harmful to humans, this method of mosquito control is regarded as a safer alternative to pesticide spraying. In this article, we introduce a mathematical framework for exploring (i) whether a one-time release of Wolbachia carriers can elicit a sustained presence of carriers near the release site, and (ii) the extent to which spatial propagation of carriers may allow them to establish fixation in other territories. While some prior studies have formulated mosquito dispersal models using advection-reaction-diffusion PDEs, the predictive power of such models requires careful ecological mapping: advection and diffusion coefficients exhibit significant spatial dependence due to heterogeneity of resources and topography. Here, we adopt a courser-grained view, regarding the environment as a network of discrete, diffusively-coupled "habitats"-distinct zones of high mosquito density such as stagnant ponds. We extend two previously published single-habitat mosquito models to multiple habitats, and calculate rates of migration between pairs of habitats using dispersal kernels. Our primary results are quantitative estimates regarding how the success of carrier fixation in one or more habitats is determined by: the number of carriers released, sizes of habitats, distances between habitats, and the rate of migration between habitats. Besides yielding sensible and potentially useful predictions regarding the success of Wolbachia-based control, our framework applies to other approaches (e.g., gene drives) and contexts beyond the realm of insect pest control.

Long-term impact of rearing substrates on susceptibility to insecticides and metabolic enzyme activities in the house fly Musca domestica.

Musca domestica Linnaeus is a devastating insect pest of medical and veterinary importance with reports of resistance development to commonly used insecticides worldwide. Rearing substrates usually play a crucial role in determining susceptibility to insecticides and control of insect pests. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of five rearing substrates of M. domestica on its susceptibility to different insecticides and activities of metabolic enzymes. After 30 generations of rearing, susceptibility of M. domestica to tested insecticides, viz., malathion, pirimiphos-methyl, alpha-cypermethrin, deltamethrin, methomyl, propoxur, spinetoram, and chlorfenapyr had evident differences. Musca domestica reared on hen liver exhibited reduced susceptibility to all insecticides followed by the strain reared on poultry manure. However, M. domestica reared on milk-based diet showed the highest susceptibility to tested insecticides followed by the strain reared on manures of buffalo and horse. In addition, M. domestica reared on different substrates exhibited significant differences (p < 0.01) in the activities of glutathione S-transferase (GST), cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase, and carboxylesterase (CarE). Overall, hen liver and poultry manure strains exhibited higher activities of metabolic enzymes than those of the milk-based diet, buffalo, and horse manure strains. In conclusion, the data of the present study exhibited a significant effect of rearing substrates on the susceptibility to insecticides and activities of metabolic enzymes in M. domestica. These results could be helpful for the sustainable management of M. domestica on different hosts by selecting appropriate insecticides.

Insect growth regulators for insect pest control: A review

Insect growth regulators for insect pest control: A review