Pest Control Methods Research Articles

Susceptibility of Life Stages of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) to Microwave Radiation

Physical methods of stored grain pest management such as microwave radiation can be utilized as a preventive and curative method of pest control. The susceptibility of various lifestages of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) to microwave radiation was studied by irradiating infested wheat flour at 3 cm flour bed thickness. All the life stages of T. castaneum were irradiated at five different power levels viz., 136 W, 264 W, 440 W, 616 W and 800 W for 20 s. Eggs were more susceptible to microwave irradiation, whereas the susceptibility of grubs, pupae and adults were comparable. Mortality of all the life stages of T. castaneum increased with the increase in microwave irradiation power. Mortality of egg, grubs, pupae and adults were highest at an irradiation dose of 800 W i.e., 100, 96, 80 and 80%, respectively. Standardization of power, depth of flour bed thickness and duration of irradiation will enable the utilization of household microwave oven for the disinfestation of food grains.

Transcriptome Profiling Reveals Genes Related to Sex Determination and Differentiation in Sugarcane Borer (Chilo sacchariphagus Bojer)

Simple SummaryChilo sacchariphagus Bojer is an important sugarcane pest globally. The identification of key genes associated with sex determination and differentiation will provide important basic information for the sterile insect technique control strategy. In this study, the comparative transcriptomic analysis of female and male adults revealed sex-biased gene expression, indicating putative genetic elements of sex determination and differentiation in this species.Chilo sacchariphagus Bojer is an important sugarcane pest globally. Along with genetic modification strategies, the sterile insect technique (SIT) has gained more attention as an environment-friendly method for pest control. The identification of key genes associated with sex determination and differentiation will provide important basic information for this control strategy. As such, the transcriptome sequencing of female and male adults was conducted in order to understand the sex-biased gene expression and molecular basis of sex determination and differentiation in this species. A total of 60,429 unigenes were obtained; among them, 34,847 genes were annotated. Furthermore, 11,121 deferentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, of which 8986 were male-biased and 2135 were female-biased genes. The male-biased genes were enriched for carbon metabolism, peptidase activity and transmembrane transport, while the female-biased genes were enriched for the cell cycle, DNA replication, and the MAPK signaling pathway. In addition, 102 genes related to sex-determination and differentiation were identified, including the protein toll, ejaculatory bulb-specific protein, fruitless, transformer-2, sex-lethal, beta-Catenin, sox, gata4, beta-tubulin, cytosol aminopeptidase, seminal fluid, and wnt4. Furthermore, transcription factors such as myb, bhlh and homeobox were also found to be potentially related to sex determination and differentiation in this species. Our data provide new insights into the genetic elements associated with sex determination and differentiation in Chilo sacchariphagus, and identified potential candidate genes to develop pest-control strategies.

Droplet deposition and pest control efficacy on pine trees from aerial application.

Aerial application, a spraying method with aircraft as the application platform, is one of the most important methods of pest control in pine forests. This work aimed to investigate the movement and distribution patterns of droplets and the pest control effectiveness of helicopter spraying on Masson pine (MP) and Korean pine (KP) trees. In particular, three nozzle types (CP02, CP03 and CP04) were evaluated and compared at the same spray volume rate (15 L ha-1 ) in both wind tunnel and field trials. The CP04 nozzle with a larger orifice size showed significantly better deposition and penetration, but the precision of flight operation parameters must be strictly controlled when using this type of nozzle. The majority (≥48%) of the droplets produced by the three nozzle types were concentrated in the range of <200 μm, and the spray performance of each nozzle type was more stable in the range 201-300 μm. The final pest correction control rate (CR) of MP was in the range 59.24-95.74% and that of KP was 45.41-54.39% by helicopter spraying. This study confirmed that it is necessary to select the appropriate nozzle type and ensure accurate flight parameters for aerial application in mountain pine forests. Meanwhile, it also confirms the importance of the timing of operation which can lead to incorrect implementation, resulting in poor control effectiveness. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Expression and Role of Vitellogenin Genes in Ovarian Development of Zeugodacus cucurbitae.

Simple SummaryVitellogenin (Vg) is the precursor of the yolk protein gene, which is crucial for insect reproduction. In this study, we identified four Vg genes in Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett). Their molecular characteristics and expression patterns were analyzed. The four genes are mainly expressed in the fat body tissue of adult female melon flies, and their expression is regulated by the juvenile hormone and ecdysone. Nutritional stress significantly down-regulated their expression, indicating that nutrition-dependent vitellogenic development occurs during ovarian development. RNAi-mediated inhibition of the expression of the four genes resulted in significantly delayed ovarian development in Z. cucurbitae. The results indicate that the four genes play an important role in the development of ovaries in Z. cucurbitae.Vitellogenin (Vg) genes encode the major egg yolk protein precursor in arthropods. In this study, four Vgs were identified in Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett). Sequence analysis showed that four ZcVgs had the conserved Vg domain. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that four ZcVgs were homologous to the Vgs of Tephritidae insects. The temporal and spatial expression patterns of ZcVgs were analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and the four ZcVgs showed high expression levels in female adults, especially in the fat body. The expression of ZcVg1 and ZcVg3 was down-regulated by a low dosage (0.5 μg) of 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), and ZcVg2, ZcVg3, and ZcVg4 were up-regulated by a high dosage (1.0 and 2.0 μg) of 20E. The expression of ZcVg1 and ZcVg2 was up-regulated by 5 μg of juvenile hormone (JH), while all of the ZcVgs were down-regulated by a low and high dosage of JH. Expression of ZcVgs was down-regulated after 24 h of starvation and recovered to normal after nutritional supplementation. After micro-injection of the gene-specific double-stranded RNA, the ZcVgs’ expression was significantly suppressed, and ovarian development was delayed in Z. cucurbitae females. The results indicate that RNA interference of reproduction-related genes is a potential pest control method that works by manipulating female fertility.

Toxic Effects of Organophosphorus and Organochlorine Pesticides on Testudineus (Bloch)

Now-a-day modern techniques employed in agriculture and newer chemicals used have contributed much to environmental pollution, particularly to water pollution. This can result in local effects on the environment. The killing of fish by pesticides is quite common. In the present paper, an attempt has been made to evaluate the impact of 48-h LC 50 concentration of Organphosphors (Cythion and Metacid) and Organochlorine (DDT and Lindane) on the coagulation time (CT) and the total Thrombocyte count (THC) of male and female Anabas testudineus used animal. The study reveals towards pathological disturbances involiving injury and haemorrhage in tissues of the test fish with significant lowered CT value and higher THC count at different levels of the ‘t’ value. Therefore, gradual phasing out of pesticides in fishery resources in fishery resources is suggestive. Further in order to check the use and accidental entry of pesticides in the water bodies, a number of alternative pest control methods have been developed but a complete success has not yet been achievd and thus more needed in this direction.

Adoption and income effects of new agricultural technology on family farms in China.

Family farms are the main force that promotes the direct application of new agricultural technology to production. So what are the factors that affect the adoption of new agricultural technology by family farms, and can the adoption of new technology increase the operating income of family farms? Using cross-sectional data from 847 family farms, this study examines the determinants and impacts of multiple new agricultural technologies adoption on family farms’ income in China. To account for selection bias from both observable and unobservable factors, an endogenous switching regression model is employed to evaluate the effects of new agricultural technology on family farms’ income. The empirical results show that the adoption of new agricultural technology is affected by the endowment of farmers and the characteristics of family farms. After controlling for the selection bias, the adoption of new agricultural technologies has a positive and significant impact on family farms’ income. And the impact on the non-adopter family farms is much larger than adopter family farms. Heterogeneity analysis indicates that family farms with a larger area of arable land earn more from the adoption of new technologies than small farms. In all types of technology investigated, the new methods of pest control and the new chemical fertilizer technology have a relatively large impact on family farms’ income, while the new mechanical technology has the least impact on family farms’ income. The adoption of new technologies by family farms is more important for promoting the progress of agricultural science and technology. Therefore, it is necessary to take effective measures to overcome the obstacles to the adoption of new agricultural technologies and pay more attention to the use of new agricultural technologies to improve agricultural production efficiency.

Lipopeptides Produced by Bacillus mojavensis P1709 as an Efficient Tool to Maintain Postharvest Cherry Tomato Quality and Quantity

Because of significant yield losses caused by fungal pathogens, new efficient and environmentally safe methods of pest control are needed, and amphiphilic compounds (biosurfactants) produced by many microbes are considered a good alternative. In the present study, biosurfactants produced by the rhizosphere isolate Bacillus mojavensis P1709 were assessed for their ability to protect postharvest cherry tomatoes from decay and mycotoxin contamination caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. It was demonstrated that the genome of B. mojavensis P1709 contained the fenD and srfAA genes, which are responsible for the synthesis of compounds of the fengycin and surfactin families. APF (acid-precipitated fraction) of B. mojavensis P1709 culture medium at a concentration of 20 g L−1 inhibited pathogen radial growth on agar plates by 93%, and T-2 and HT-2 mycotoxin production by 98%, after 5 days of cultivation. APF also suppressed fungal growth in the in vivo test on cherry tomato fruits by 93% and 25% on the 2nd and 7th days of incubation, respectively. The results obtained demonstrate that biosurfactants produced by B. mojavensis P1709 are an efficient tool for protecting postharvest cherry tomatoes from fungal mold decay and mycotoxin contamination.

Identification of an arthropod molecular target for plant-derived natural repellents

Arthropods maintain ecosystem balance while also contributing to the spread of disease. Plant-derived natural repellents represent an ecological method of pest control, but their direct molecular targets in arthropods remain to be further elucidated. Occupying a critical phylogenetic niche in arthropod evolution, scorpions retain an ancestral genetic profile. Here, using a behavior-guided screening of the Mesobuthus martensii genome, we identified a scorpion transient receptor potential (sTRP1) channel that senses Cymbopogon-derived natural repellents, while remaining insensitive to the synthetic chemical pesticide DEET. Scrutinizing orthologs of sTRP1 in Drosophila melanogaster, we further demonstrated dTRPγ ion channel as a chemosensory receptor of natural repellents to mediate avoidance behavior. This study sheds light on arthropod molecular targets of natural repellents, exemplifying the arthropod–plant adaptation. It should also help the rational design of insect control strategy and in conserving biodiversity.

Preventing scattering of Tetranychus urticae in Rosa hybrida through dsCOPB2 expression

To obtain rose plants resistant to Tetranychus urticae, which is one of the major pests of roses grown in a plastic house or greenhouse to be harvested as cut-flowers, we introduced the double-stranded RNA of the coatomer protein complex (dsCOPB2) from T. urticae (inserted into the pPZP200-Bar vector) to somatic embryos or embryogenic calluses of a rose breeding line (KR056006), using an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation method. It took 11 to 41 months to obtain eight plants, which were regenerated from the somatic embryos or embryogenic calluses through a selection procedure that uses phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (ppt; 2 mg L − 1) after co-cultivation. Validation of the transgene in pseudo-transgenic plants was verified via genomic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern Blot analyses. It was confirmed that one to six copies of the transgene were transferred to the eight dsCOPB2-transgenic lines; the levels of the transgene were analyzed via real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). In the resistance test of one transgenic line (KR056006-COPB2–13) against T. urticae, the pest showed a high mortality rate of approximately (∼89%), and egg-laying was relatively decreased by approximately 88%, compared to those for a non-transgenic (NT) rose line, KR056006. This suggests that the transgenic rose plants with high accumulated amounts of dsCOPB2 have a negative effect on the survival of T. urticae. It is expected that these results will accelerate the development of pest-resistant cultivars and may replace conventional pest control methods in general.

Crop Protection and Environment: Sustainable Control Measures of Pests and Diseases

Abstract The second Sustainable Development Goals determines to achieve zero starvation, accomplish food security and attain better-quality nutrition and encourage eco-friendly agriculture. The sustainability can be achieved by maintaining environments, improving capability for adjustment to climate change, unpredictable weather, and other natural catastrophes and enhancing land and soil quality progressively. The challenge in keeping high yield crops is pests and diseases attack. Control measures to suppress pests and diseases should also keep the ecosystems in balance. Pesticides that heavily used for plant protection besides their effectiveness in controlling pests and diseases also possess risks to non-target organisms. To diminish the harmful effect of pesticides, innovative methods to cut the amount of active ingredients applied have established, including developing new formulation of existing compounds, enhancing the bioactivity of active ingredients. In addition, there are also new development in plant protection products derived from natural ingredients, new mode of action and biochemical targets. Various cultural methods are considered eco-friendly measures, including habitat and cropping management, sanitation and fallowing. Furthermore, application of biocontrol agents and cultivation of resistant/tolerant crop varieties should be incorporate into plant protection as part of sustainable control methods of pests and diseases.

PELATIHAN DAN SOSIALISASI PEMASANGAN PERANGKAP ATRAKTAN BAGI PETANI UNTUK MENGENDALIKAN HAMA PENGGEREK BUAH KOPI

In Simalungun regency, the intensity of the coffee berry borer attack was in the category of heavy and very heavy attack. The high intensity of attacks is caused by coffee farmers not carrying out control efforts. As a result, the population and spread of the coffee berry borer has increased over time. The majority of coffee farmers do not know the control technology to overcome the coffee berry borer. Including pest control using attractant traps, coffee farmers in Simalungun Regency are still not familiar with it. The way the attractant works, which produces an aroma that is able to stimulate female coffee berry borer pests to approach and then enter the trap, is completely unknown to coffee farmers. For the introduction of this pest control technology, the activities carried out with partner farmers started from providing counseling on pest control methods, introducing attractants and how they work, training farmers through demonstrations of installing attractants in coffee plantations, as well as socializing the importance of all coffee farmers willing to install attractants in their respective gardens. The results of the training and socialization of trapping attractants showed positive success benefits, as reflected in the knowledge of partner farmers on pre-test questions (before training) and answers to post-test questions (after training was given several times). Farmers' responses in the discussion session also reflected more curiosity about the use of attractants to overcome losses caused by the coffee berry borer

CRISPR-mediated knockout of cardinal and cinnabar eye pigmentation genes in the western tarnished plant bug

The western tarnished plant bug, Lygus hesperus, is a key hemipteran pest of numerous agricultural, horticultural, and industrial crops in the western United States and Mexico. A lack of genetic tools in L. hesperus hinders progress in functional genomics and in developing innovative pest control methods such as gene drive. Here, using RNA interference (RNAi) against cardinal (LhCd), cinnabar (LhCn), and white (LhW), we showed that knockdown of LhW was lethal to developing embryos, while knockdown of LhCd or LhCn produced bright red eye phenotypes, in contrast to wild-type brown eyes. We further used CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated) genome editing to generate germline knockouts of both LhCd (Card) and LhCn (Cinn), producing separate strains of L. hesperus characterized by mutant eye phenotypes. Although the cardinal knockout strain Card exhibited a gradual darkening of the eyes to brown typical of the wild-type line later in nymphal development, we observed bright red eyes throughout all life stages in the cinnabar knockout strain Cinn, making it a viable marker for tracking gene editing in L. hesperus. These results provide evidence that CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing functions in L. hesperus and that eye pigmentation genes are useful for tracking the successful genetic manipulation of this insect.

Manual curation and phylogenetic analysis of chitinase family genes in the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri.

Chitinases are enzymes that digest the polysaccharide polymer chitin. During insect development, breakdown of chitin is an essential step in molting of the exoskeleton. Knockdown of chitinases required for molting is lethal to insects, making chitinase genes an interesting target for RNAi-based pest control methods. The Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, carries the bacterium causing Huanglongbing, or citrus greening disease, a devastating citrus disease. We identified and annotated 12 chitinase family genes from D. citri as part of a community effort to create high-quality gene models to aid the design of interdictory molecules for pest control. We categorized the D. citri chitinases according to an established classification scheme and re-evaluated the classification of chitinases in other hemipterans. In addition to chitinases from known groups, we identified a novel class of chitinases present in D. citri and several related hemipterans that appears to be the result of horizontal gene transfer.

Single-row exclusion nets: an alternative pest control method with no detectable impact on breeding bird assemblages in orchards bordered by hedgerows

Agricultural intensification has led to dramatic declines in bird populations. In particular, the acknowledged role of synthetic pesticides on direct bird intoxication or food resource depletion urges us to seek alternative crop protection methods. Pest exclusion netting systems have recently gained popularity among fruit growers as an efficient means of reducing pest attacks, allowing their transition to organic farming. Single-row exclusion nets, which only cover fruit trees and leave uncovered both the inter-row grassy strips and the hedges, are increasingly being used in apple orchards of Southern Europe. However, net-induced effects on wildlife remain unknown. This study is the first to assess the impacts of single-row exclusion nets on breeding bird communities. We hypothesized that the exclusion net effects would be weaker than those associated with synthetic pesticide use, except for bird species that forage in the tree canopy. We monitored breeding bird abundance, and species richness in 46 commercial apple orchards managed using integrated pest management (IPM) or organic standards with or without exclusion nets. We counted 705 birds belonging to 32 different species. Total bird abundance, the number of observed species, and the Chao1 estimate of species richness were influenced by orchard management strategy. Breeding bird assemblages in organic orchards were as numerous and diverse in both the presence and absence of exclusion nets. In contrast, both bird abundance and species richness were significantly decreased in IPM orchards. The abundance and species richness of bird assemblages and the abundance of a few individual species also increased with the number of hedgerows bordering the orchards. Our results demonstrate that single-row netting systems for organic farming represent an effective pest control strategy with no significant impact on bird communities and highlight the importance of hedgerows along the orchards’ edges.

Volatile Signals From Guava Plants Prime Defense Signaling and Increase Jasmonate-Dependent Herbivore Resistance in Neighboring Citrus Plants.

Intercropping can reduce agricultural pest incidence and represents an important sustainable alternative to conventional pest control methods. Citrus intercropped with guava (Psidium guajava L.) has a lower incidence of Asian citrus psyllid (ACP, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama) and huanglongbing disease (HLB), but the mechanisms are still unknown. In this study, we tested whether volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by guava plants play a role in plant–plant communications and trigger defense responses in sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) in the laboratory. The results showed that the behavioral preference and developmental performance of ACP on citrus plants that were exposed to guava VOCs were suppressed. The expression of defense-related pathways involved in early signaling, jasmonate (JA) biosynthesis, protease inhibitor (PI), terpenoid, phenylpropanoid, and flavonoid biosynthesis was induced in guava VOC-exposed citrus plants. Headspace analysis revealed that guava plants constitutively emit high levels of (E)-β-caryophyllene and (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT), which can induce the accumulation of JA and promote stronger defense responses of citrus to ACP feeding. In addition, exposure to guava VOCs also increased the indirect defense of citrus by attracting the parasitic wasp Tamarixia radiata. Together, our findings indicate that citrus plants can eavesdrop on the VOC cues emitted by neighboring intact guava plants to boost their JA-dependent anti-herbivore activities. The knowledge gained from this study will provide mechanisms underlying citrus-guava intercropping for the ecological management of insect pests.

Field and Laboratory Efficacy of Low-Impact Commercial Products in Preventing Olive Fruit Fly, Bactrocera oleae, Infestation.

Simple SummaryThe adoption of sustainable methods for herbivore pest control has become mandatory in Europe, with the EU directive 128/09. Since then, stringent evaluation protocols have been applied to insecticides and several molecules (that are suspected to be unsafe for the environment or human health) have been banned. Hence, the evaluation of sustainable methods, e.g., preventive tools based on the manipulation of pest behaviour, must be considered. Using field and laboratory assays, we tested the efficacy of different products in preventing infestation of a key pest of olive orchards, the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae. Our findings may be useful for the development of control strategies in integrated pest management (IPM) and organic agriculture.The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae, is the key pest of olive trees in several areas of the world. Given the need for the development of sustainable control methods, preventive tools, based on the manipulation of pest behaviour, must be considered. Here, under field and laboratory conditions, we tested the efficacy of different products in preventing B. oleae infestation. A field trial was conducted, from July to November 2020, in an olive orchard located in Central Italy. A table olive variety was selected and sprayed with rock powder, propolis, the mixture of both, copper oxychloride, or water (control). All treatments, except propolis, caused a reduction of B. oleae oviposition in olives, compared to the control. The mixture allowed the strongest reduction of fly infestation throughout the season, suggesting a synergistic effect. Behavioural no-choice assays were conducted to better understand the effects of treatments on B. oleae females. Compared to the control, females showed a lower preference for the central area of an arena containing an olive twig bearing two olive fruits, fully developed, but still green, treated with rock powder, plus propolis mixture. For all treatments, B. oleae showed lower oviposition events, suggesting deterrence to oviposition. Our results indicate that the tested products may have value against B. oleae, within integrated pest management (IPM) and organic agriculture.

Apolygus lucorum-induced resistance in Vitis vinifera L. elicits changes at the phenotypic, physiological, and biochemical levels

The infestation of the pest Apolygus lucorum (Meyer-Dür, 1843) induced changes in Vitis vinifera L. ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ at the growth, physiological, and biochemical levels, which were recorded in this study. Continuous infestation by A. lucorum for > 4 d significantly affected plant height and leaf width, although there were no effects when infestation was for ≤ 4 d. Over the long term, A. lucorum mortality increased and their average survival time decreased. A. lucorum-based injury induced plant defense responses, and a spike in defense enzymes was observed. Additionally, infestation induced significant changes in protease inhibitor and secondary metabolite levels in the grape leaves. After A. lucorum infestation, total sugar, protein, and chlorophyll in the leaf decreased significantly. Puncture injury generally induced a milder response compared with A. lucorum infestation. In summary, A. lucorum infestation induced resistance in Cabernet Sauvignon by activating various physiological and biochemical defense responses. In addition to providing new insights into the coevolution of plants and insects, the results presented in this study may lead to the development of an effective, innovative, and environmentally friendly pest control method.

Regulating pests—material politics and calculation in integrated pest management

This paper attempts to shed some light on current biopolitics of food and environmental security by analyzing the strategy of Integrated pest management (IPM). IPM is an ecological form of pest management that emerged in the United States in the 1950s in response to the pesticide crisis and now informs numerous pesticide legislations around the world. The paper analyzes IPM as a governmental hinge that aims to reconcile the conflicting goals of food security and environmental security. To this end, the paper makes three intertwined arguments. First, through an examination of scientific texts from the field of economic entomology, the paper shows how biological and chemical pest control methods are produced as two conflicting materialities that must be mediated. In a second step, the text shows how economically defined thresholds and cost-benefit analyzes are used to level the difference between these two materialities and make them commensurable. Finally, it elaborates how IPM aims primarily at transforming farmers’ practices. The use of chemicals in agriculture is to be reduced by transforming farmers into calculating subjects. Overall, the article aims to show how IPM, as an important element of contemporary ecological governmentality, seeks to realize positive environmental effects in the quantitative medium of economics and science.

Nano-insecticides against the black cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): Toxicity, development, enzyme activity, and DNA mutagenicity.

Frequent applications of synthetic insecticides might cause environmental pollution due to the high residue. In addition, increasing insecticide resistance in many insect pests requires novel pest control methods. Nanotechnology could be a promising field of modern agriculture, and is receiving considerable attention in the development of novel nano-agrochemicals, such as nanoinsectticides and nanofertilizers. This study assessed the effects of the lethal and sublethal concentrations of chlorantraniliprole, thiocyclam, and their nano-forms on the development, reproductive activity, oxidative stress enzyme activity, and DNA changes in the black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon, at the molecular level. The results revealed that A. ipsilon larvae were more susceptible to the nano-forms than the regular forms of both nano chlorine and sulfur within the chlorantraniliprole and thiocyclam insecticides, respectively, with higher toxicities than the regular forms (ca. 3.86, and ca.2.06-fold, respectively). Significant differences in biological parameters, including developmental time and reproductive activity (fecundity and hatchability percent) were also observed. Correspondingly, increases in oxidative stress enzyme activities were observed, as were mutagenic effects on the genomic DNA of A. ipsilon after application of the LC50 of the nano-forms of both insecticides compared to the control. These promising results could represent a crucial step toward developing efficient nanoinsecticides for sustainable control of A. ipsilon.

Xenobiotic responses in insects.

Insects have evolved a powerful detoxification system to protect themselves against environmental and anthropogenic xenobiotics including pesticides and nanoparticles. The resulting tolerance to insecticides is an immense problem in agriculture. In this study, we summarize advances in our understanding of insect xenobiotic responses: the detoxification strategies and the regulation mechanisms against xenobiotics including nanoparticles, the problem of response specificity and the potential usefulness of this study field for an elaborate pest management. In particular, we highlight that versatility of the detoxification system relies on the relatively unspecific recognition of a broad range of potential toxic substances that trigger either of various canonical xenobiotic responses signaling pathways, including CncC/Keap1, HR96, AHR/ARNT, GPCR, and MAPK/CREB. However, it has emerged that the actual response to an inducer may nevertheless be specific. There are two nonexclusive possibilities that may explain response specificity: (1) differential cross-talk between the known pathways and (2) additional, yet unidentified regulators and pathways of detoxification. Hence, a deeper and broader understanding of the regulation mechanisms of xenobiotic response in insects in the future might facilitate the development and application of highly efficient and environmentally friendly pest control methods, allowing us to face the challenge of the world population growth.