Peruvian Households Research Articles

Climate Change and Agriculture: Subsistence Farmers’ Response to Extreme Heat

This paper examines how subsistence farmers respond to extreme heat. Using microdata from Peruvian households, we find that high temperatures reduce agricultural productivity, increase area planted, and change crop mix. These findings are consistent with farmers using input adjustments as a short-term mechanism to attenuate the effect of extreme heat on output. This response seems to complement other coping strategies, such as selling livestock, but exacerbates the drop in yields, a standard measure of agricultural productivity. Using our estimates, we show that accounting for land adjustments is important to quantify damages associated with climate change. (JEL O12, O13, Q11, Q12, Q15, Q54)

Factors associated with the consumption of table salt with inadequate iodine concentrations: a population analysis at a Peruvian household level.

Iodine deficiency is a public health problem, especially in Peru, where it affects women of childbearing age and school-age children. The objective of the study was to conduct a household-level analysis of the factors associated with the consumption of table salt with inadequate amounts of iodine in Peru. Analytical cross-sectional study using Peruvian household-level data from the Demographic and Family Health Survey. Table salt iodine concentrations were considered as the dependent variable ('inadequate' with iodine levels <30 PPM and 'adequate' with levels ≥30 PPM). The association between iodine concentrations in salt and independent variables was evaluated using crude and adjusted log-binomial regression models. Peru. A total of 25 007 households were included. In Peru, 21·8 % households had inadequate table salt iodine concentrations. Belonging to the poorer and poorest wealth index, living in the Highlands natural region, and living with women of childbearing age with native mother tongue were identified as factors associated with inadequate iodine concentrations in table salt. There is an urgent need to ensure that table salt with adequate iodine concentrations is available for poor populations, residents of the Highlands and households with ethnic presence. Likewise, it is necessary to promote good storage practices, greater regulation/law enforcement and better monitoring of the companies that manufacture or sell this product. Furthermore, the population needs to be informed of the disorders associated with iodine deficiency.

Vulnerable families and costly formula: a qualitative exploration of infant formula purchasing among peri-urban Peruvian households

BackgroundSubstantial evidence exists surrounding the health risks of breast milk substitutes (BMS) in place of exclusive breastfeeding among infants < 6 months of age in resource-poor settings. Yet, mothers’ experiences of selecting and purchasing BMS brands have not been well studied to date. This qualitative study explored the factors influencing BMS purchasing practices, along with the consequences of those decisions, in peri-urban Lima, Peru.MethodsWe conducted in-depth interviews (IDIs) with 29 mothers who had begun mixed-feeding their infants during the first 6 months of life. Interviews explored participants’ reasons for initiating infant formula use and their experiences of selecting, purchasing, and providing BMS to their children. Audio recordings were transcribed, coded, and key themes and illustrative vignettes were identified.ResultsThe primary reported reasons for initiating infant formula use included having received a recommendation for infant formula from a healthcare provider, concerns about an infant’s weight gain, and the perception of insufficient breast milk. Mothers tended to initially purchase the BMS brand that had been recommended by a doctor, which was often more expensive than the alternatives. The costs of BMS, which escalated as infants grew, often disrupted the household economy and generated significant stress. While some mothers identified alternatives allowing them to continue purchasing the same brand, others chose to switch to less expensive products. Several mothers began to feed their infants follow-on formula or commercial milk, despite their awareness that such practices were not recommended for infants under 6 months of age. The approval of family members and the absence of an infant’s immediate adverse reaction influenced mothers’ decisions to continue purchasing these products.ConclusionsThe high costs of BMS may deepen existing socio-economic vulnerabilities and generate new risks for infant health. The continued dedication of resources towards breastfeeding education and support is critical, and strategies would benefit from underscoring the long-term financial and health consequences of infant formula use, and from strengthening women’s self-efficacy to refuse to initiate infant formula when recommended. In addition, health providers should be trained in counseling to help women to relactate or return to exclusive breastfeeding after cessation.

Cut-off points of anthropometric markers associated with hypertension and diabetes in Peru: Demographic and Health Survey 2018.

To determine the optimal anthropometric cut-off points for predicting the likelihood ratios of hypertension and diabetes in the Peruvian population. A cross-sectional study was performed to establish cut-off values for body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist:height ratio (WHtR) and Conicity index (C-index) associated with increased risk of hypertension and diabetes. Youden's index (YIndex), area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity and specificity were calculated. Peruvian households. Peruvian population over the age of 18 years. A total of 31 553 subjects were included, 57 % being women. Among the women, 53·06 % belonged to the 25- to 44-year-old age group [mean age: 41·66 in men and 40·02 in women]. The mean BMI, WHtR and C-index values were higher in women 27·49, 0·61, 1·30, respectively, while the mean WC value was higher in men 92·12 cm (sd ± 11·28). The best predictors of hypertension in men were the WHtR (AUC = 0·64) and the C-index (AUC = 0·64) with an optimal cut-off point of 0·57 (YIndex = 0·284) and 1·301 (YIndex = 0·284), respectively. Women showed an AUC of 0·63 and 0·61 in the WHtR and C-index, respectively, with an optimal cut-off of 0·61 (YIndex = 0·236) and 1·323 (YIndex = 0·225). The best predictor for diabetes was the C-index: with an AUC = 0·67 and an optimal cut-off of 1·337 (YIndex = 0·346) for men and an AUC = 0·66 and optimal cut-off of 1·313 (YIndex = 0·319) for women. Our findings show that in Peruvian adults, the WHtR and the C-index have the strongest association with hypertension in both sexes. Likewise, the C-index had the strongest association with diabetes.

Measuring Out-of-pocket Payment, Catastrophic Health Expenditure and the Related Socioeconomic Inequality in Peru: A Comparison Between 2008 and 2017.

Objectives:Describe out-of-pocket payment (OOP) and the proportion of Peruvian households with catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) and evaluate changes in socioeconomic inequalities in CHE between 2008 and 2017.Methods:We used data from the 2008 and 2017 National Household Surveys on Living and Poverty Conditions (ENAHO in Spanish), which are based on probabilistic stratified, multistage and independent sampling of areas. OOP was converted into constant dollars of 2017. A household with CHE was assumed when the proportion between OOP and payment capacity was ≥0.40. OOP was described by median and interquartile range while CHE was described by weighted proportions and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). To estimate the socioeconomic inequality in CHE we computed the Erreygers concentration index.Results:The median OOP reduced from 205.8 US dollars to 158.7 US dollars between 2008 and 2017. The proportion of CHE decreased from 4.9% (95% CI, 4.5 to 5.2) in 2008 to 3.7% (95% CI, 3.4 to 4.0) in 2017. Comparison of socioeconomic inequality of CHE showed no differences between 2008 and 2017, except for rural households in which CHE was less concentrated in richer households (p<0.05) and in households located on the rest of the coast, showing an increase in the concentration of CHE in richer households (p<0.05).Conclusions:Although OOP and CHE reduced between 2008 and 2017, there is still socioeconomic inequality in the burden of CHE across different subpopulations. To reverse this situation, access to health resources and health services should be promoted and guaranteed to all populations.

Does Employment Protection Unprotect Workers? The Labor Market Effects of Job Reinstatements in Peru

We investigate the labor market effects of the reestablishment of private-sector workers' right to reinstatement for unfair dismissals, which occurred in 2002 in Peru. Using data from Peruvian Household Surveys from 2004 to 2015, and the Specialized Employment Survey 1998-2001, we estimate a quasi-experimental difference-in-difference model. We find that this reestablishment is associated with increases in new contracting in the private sector, by 5.9 % for permanent hiring and 3.0 % for temporary hiring. By means of placebo tests, we only fund a causal effect of the reinstatement on temporary hiring, not on permanent hiring. We also find a negative association between reinstatements and real wages of 3.9 %, but placebo tests indicate that this is not a causal effect. Our findings call into question the effectiveness of removing reinstatement laws as a policy to increase permanent hiring and wages.

Identification of Bartonella rochalimae in Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus) and Fleas Collected from Rural Peruvian Households.

.In the present study, we tested 391 fleas collected from guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) (241 Pulex species, 110 Ctenocephalides felis, and 40 Tiamastus cavicola) and 194 fleas collected from human bedding and clothing (142 Pulex species, 43 C. felis, five T. cavicola, and four Ctenocephalides canis) for the presence of Bartonella DNA. We also tested 83 blood spots collected on Flinders Technology Associates (FTA) cards from guinea pigs inhabiting 338 Peruvian households. Bartonella DNA was detected in 81 (20.7%) of 391 guinea pig fleas, in five (2.6%) of 194 human fleas, and in 16 (19.3%) of 83 guinea pig blood spots. Among identified Bartonella species, B. rochalimae was the most prevalent in fleas (89.5%) and the only species found in the blood spots from guinea pigs. Other Bartonella species detected in fleas included B. henselae (3.5%), B. clarridgeiae (2.3%), and an undescribed Bartonella species (4.7%). Our results demonstrated a high prevalence of zoonotic B. rochalimae in households in rural areas where the research was conducted and suggested a potential role of guinea pigs as a reservoir of this bacterium.

The effect of Peru's CDM investments on households’ welfare: An econometric approach

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol has two main objectives: Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and contributing to sustainable development (SD) in developing countries. The empirical evidence indicates that the first goal has been fulfilled; however, the literature mostly provides ex-ante evidence regarding the second goal. This paper contributes to the literature by assessing the ex-post quantitative effect that CDM projects have had on SD (employment and monetary welfare) in Peru, a country ranked among the most important CDM investment host countries worldwide. The econometric model estimates the direct and indirect effects of the CDM projects’ investments on Peruvian households’ monetary welfare for 2011–2015. Our results suggest that CDM investments had a slight effect on household consumption expenditure and had no effect neither on employment nor in poverty alleviation. Our findings suggest the need to strengthen CDM’s institutional framework by identifying key development definitions and indicators.

Foods and fads: The welfare impacts of rising quinoa prices in Peru

Abstract Riding on a wave of interest in “superfoods” in rich countries, quinoa went in less than a decade from being largely unknown outside of South America to being an upper-class staple in the United States, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere. As a result, concerned commentators suggested that the rising international demand for quinoa, which tripled prices, might have substantially harmed Peruvian quinoa consumers. We study the impacts of rising quinoa prices on the welfare of Peruvian households. Our analysis suggests these fears are unwarranted. A descriptive analysis shows that quinoa is a small part (

An evaluation of the Fondo de Inclusión Social Energético program to promote access to liquefied petroleum gas in Peru

IntroductionOver 80% of rural households in Peru use solid fuels as their primary source of domestic energy, which contributes to several health problems. In 2016, 6.7 million Peruvians were living in rural areas. The Fondo de Inclusión Social Energético (FISE) LPG Promotion Program, which began in 2012 and is housed under the Ministry of Energy and Mining, is a government-sponsored initiative aimed at reducing use of solid fuels by increasing access to clean fuel for cooking to poor Peruvian households. MethodsWe conducted a mixed methods study incorporating data from publicly available records and reports, a community survey of 375 households in Puno (the province with the largest number of FISE beneficiary households), and in-depth interviews with community members and key stakeholders. We used the Reach, Effectiveness – Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework to guide our data collection and analysis efforts. In a sample of 95 households, we also measured 48-hour area concentrations and personal exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5). ResultsThe FISE LPG promotion program has achieved high geographical reach; the program is currently serving households in 100% of districts in Peru. Households with access to electricity may be participating at a higher level than households without electricity because the program is implemented primarily by electricity distributors. In a sample of 95 households, FISE beneficiaries experienced a reduction in kitchen concentrations of PM2.5; however, there were no differences in personal exposures, and both kitchen and personal exposures were above the WHO intermediate target for indoor air quality. Among the 375 households surveyed, stove stacking with biomass fuels was reported in >95% of both beneficiary and non-beneficiary households, with fewer than 5% reporting exclusive use. In-depth interviews suggest that the complexity of the enrollment process and access to LPG distribution points may be key barriers to participating in FISE. ConclusionThe FISE LPG Program has achieved high reach and its targeted subsidy and surcharge-based financing structure represent a potentially feasible and sustainable model for other government programs. However, the prevalence of stove stacking among FISE beneficiaries remains high. There is a need for improved communication channels between program implementers and beneficiaries. FISE should also consider expanding the mobile LPG network and community delivery service to reduce physical barriers and indirect costs of LPG acquisition. Finally, increasing the value of LPG vouchers to completely cover one or two tanks a month, or alternatively, introducing behavior change strategies to reduce monthly LPG usage, may facilitate the transition to exclusive LPG use.

Determinants of catastrophic healthcare expenditure in Peru.

The aims of this study were to assess factors associated with catastrophic healthcare expenditure (CHE) and the burden of out-of-pocket (OOP) payments for specific healthcare services in Peru. We used data from 30,966 households that participated in the 2016 National Household Survey (Encuesta Nacional de Hogares, ENAHO). Participants reported household characteristics and expenditure on ten healthcare services. CHE was defined as healthcare spending equal to or higher than 40% of the household's capacity to pay. The associations of various household characteristics and OOP payments for specific healthcare services with CHE were assessed in logistic regression models. Poorer, rural and smaller households as well as those with older adults and individuals with chronic conditions had greater odds of facing CHE. According to the estimates from the adjusted regression model, healthcare services could be grouped into three groups. Medical tests, surgery and medication were in the first group with odds ratios (ORs) between 6.43 and 4.72. Hospitalisation, outpatient, dental and eye care were in the second group with ORs between 2.61 and 1.46. Child care, maternity care and other healthcare services (such as contraceptives, rehabilitation, etc.) were in the third group with non-significant ORs. Many Peruvian households are forced to finance their healthcare through OOP payments, burdening their finances to the extent of affecting their living standards.

Análisis de la tendencia de la talla en niños y adolescentes peruanos; 2007 - 2013

Introducción: La talla es un indicador que brinda información sobre el desarrollo de un país debido a que refleja las condiciones sociales en que vive la población y su repercusión para el estado de salud. Objetivos: Analizar la tendencia de la talla alta y baja según edad, sexo, área de residencia y pobreza.Material y métodos: Estudio de tendencia que analiza la talla alta y baja en 57.597 niños y adolescentes durante 2007 y 2013 utilizando datos publicados por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática de Perú para la evaluación de la pobreza en hogares peruanos.Resultados: En el periodo 2007-2013 se observa que no hubo un cambio en el porcentaje de talla alta ni para el total ni por grupos de edad, sexo, pobreza y área de residencia. En cambio, se observó que el porcentaje de talla baja durante este periodo disminuyo del 25,4% a 18,8% (2013) (p&lt;0,001). Al observar los cambios por grupos de edad, sexo, pobreza y área de residencia se evidenció que la talla baja disminuyó de 21,2% a 12,9% en los niños entre 5 a 9 años (p&lt;0,001), en pobres extremos se redujo de 49,5% a 38,6% (p&lt;0,001) y en el área rural disminuyó de 40,1% a 31,4% (p&lt;0,001). Además, el cambio fue similar en niños y niñas (aproximadamente 4% de reducción).Conclusiones: La tendencia de talla alta no ha cambiado entre 2007-2013, y la talla baja se redujo principalmente en niños de 5-9 años, pobres extremos y áreas rurales. Es necesario mantener o mejorar las estrategias realizadas entre este periodo de estudio para seguir reduciendo el porcentaje de niños con talla baja y mejorar de esta forma su salud.

You are what (and where) you eat: Capturing food away from home in welfare measures

Consumption of food away from home is rapidly growing across the developing world, and will continue to do so as GDP per person grows and food systems evolve. Surprisingly, the majority of household surveys have not kept up with its pace and still collect limited information on it. The implications for poverty and inequality measurement are far from clear, and the direction of the impact cannot be established a priori. This paper exploits rich data on food away from home collected as part of the National Household Survey in Peru, to shed light on the extent to which welfare measures differ depending on whether food away from home is accounted for or not. Peru is a relevant context, with the average Peruvian household spending over a quarter of their food budget on food away from home since 2010. The analysis indicates that failure to account for this consumption has important implications for poverty and inequality measures as well as the understanding of who the poor are. First, accounting for food away from home results in extreme poverty rates that are 18 percent higher and moderate poverty rates that are 16 percent lower. These results are also consistent, in fact more pronounced, with poverty gap and severity measures. Second, consumption inequality measured by the Gini coefficient decreases by 1.3 points when food away from home is included – a significant reduction. Finally, the inclusion of food away from home results in a reclassification of households across poor/non-poor status – 20 percent of the poor are different, resulting in small but significant differences in the profile of the poor in dimensions such as demographics, education, and labor market characteristics. Taken together, the results indicate that a serious rethinking of how to deal with the consumption of food away from home in measuring well-being is urgently needed to properly estimate and understand poverty around the world.

Quinoa quandary: Cultural tastes and nutrition in Peru

Using a model of household food demand that incorporates regional preferences (tastes) for culturally appropriate food, I investigate whether tastes for quinoa in the Puno region of Peru reduced household nutrition intakes when quinoa prices dramatically increased between 2004 and 2012. Adapting a model from Atkin (2013) and utilizing data from a national Peruvian household survey (ENAHO), I am able to deconstruct regional changes in household nutrition over time into several general equilibrium effects; in particular, I isolate the effect of regional tastes for quinoa on nutrition outcomes. This effect is identified by an exogenous spike in quinoa prices driven by international demand for quinoa. While I find evidence that regional tastes for quinoa do exist in the Puno region, these tastes do not have a statistically significant impact on nutrition outcomes. My results lend support to the conjecture that tastes for culturally appropriate food do not meaningfully affect household nutrition if the food in question is a sufficiently small component of a household’s overall diet.

Impacto del programa social Pensión 65 sobre el gasto en alimentos 2015-2016

The objective of the present study is to estimate the impact of the social program Pension 65 on the per capita expenditure on food, as a source of information, the data base of the National Household Survey ENAHO- 2015-2016 is used, the methodology is the Double Difference and the estimation with Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and fixed effects (EF) with panel data. The unit of analysis is the Peruvian households at the national level that participate 2 consecutive years in the program: 2015 and 2016, in this social program, has been taken as the baseline year 2015. The results suggest that the program Pension 65 if it has a positive impact on per capita expenditure on food, i.e. for those beneficiaries of the Pension 65 program, per capita expenditure has increased by 3.2% (b2 = 0.032) but this result is not statistically significant at a level of significance of 5%.

Antimicrobial resistance patterns of colonizing Streptococcus pneumoniae among young child-mother pairs in the rural highlands of the Peruvian Andes

BackgroundDespite widespread use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs), Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) remains an important cause of pneumonia. Prior to widespread PCV use, we found a high prevalence of nasopharyngeal (NP) colonization with pneumococcus resistant to multiple antibiotic classes among young children in the rural highlands of Peru. We sought to confirm contemporary resistance profiles among young children, their mothers, and animal contacts in the post-PCV era.MethodsWe enrolled eligible members of Peruvian households whose children had participated in our previous study. Mothers were questioned about antibiotic use for themselves and their children age <3 years. NP samples were collected from children, mothers, and their animal contacts including cows, guinea pigs, and dogs, when available. Samples were cultured for pneumococcus using standard methods and routine disk antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed. Drinking water and milk samples were tested, when available, for the presence of β-lactam and tetracycline residues (IDEXX Β-Tetra testing kit; Westbrook, ME).ResultsMembers of 47 households were enrolled, including 50 children and 47 mothers (3 sibling pairs). The median (IQR) age of children was 1.2 years (0.6-2.2) and number of household members was 5 (4-6). Sixteen of 50 (32%) children and 7/47 (15%) mothers had received antibiotics in the prior 6 months (Fig 1). Pneumococcus was detected in 31/50 (62%) children, 9/47 (19%) mothers, and 1/31 (3%) guinea pigs. Pneumococci were not detected in dogs (n = 29) or cows (n = 7). Resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics, including TMP-SMX, tetracyclines, and β-lactams, was common among children and adults (Fig 2). No antibiotic residues were detected in water (n = 41) or milk (n = 7) samples.ConclusionPneumococcal colonization was common among young children, less prevalent among adults, and rare among animals. Resistance to macrolides and tetracyclines was common despite very little reported use of these antibiotics in people. Additional studies should evaluate whether this high prevalence of resistance is a result of local prescribing practices or unintentional environmental exposures.ADDIN EN.REFLISTDisclosures K. Edwards, Novartis: Grant Investigator, Research grant. M. Griffin, MedImmune: Grant Investigator, Grant recipient. C. Lanata, Takeda: Scientific Advisor, Consulting fee. C. G. Grijalva, Pfizer: Consultant, Consulting fee.

Uncertainty analysis and design guidelines of biomass cookstove thermal efficiency studies

Many individuals in developing areas use biomass cookstoves for cooking although there are many inherent health hazards. Judging which improved cookstove to use and distinguishing the best one for a given cooking style to mitigate these hazards is challenging. Thermal efficiency (ηth) is one assessment parameter of cookstoves that is often used. To compare ηth between cookstoves or to assess the effects of a design change on ηth, it is important to understand how the uncertainty in ηth depends on measurements, input data (equipment uncertainties, literature values, etc.), and test conditions. In this work, measurement and input data uncertainties are quantified with a propagation of uncertainty analysis for a basic brick channel cookstove used in many Peruvian households. This method can be used in any study by using reasonable uncertainty values for that study. Results showed that the four main parameters contributing to 93% of the ηth uncertainty were the lower heating values (LHV) of wood and char, the moisture content, and the change in temperature of the water in the pot. Reducing the uncertainty of LHV of unprocessed fuels is the most difficult. If such fuels are used, reporting the LHV value and its associated uncertainty is highly valuable.

Prevalencia de anemia y factores asociados en adultos mayores peruanos

To estimate the prevalence of anemia and associated factors in elderly residing in Peruvian households. the study deals with a cross-sectional design and was conducted in 2011. The sample was probabilistic, stratified and multistage independent in department of Peru. The required sample housing was 5792, we included 2172 elderly. We asked informed consent of all elderly. The anemia was defined as hemoglobin <13.0 g / dL in men and <12.0 g / dL in women, hemoglobin was adjusted for altitude. The anthropometric measurements were performed according to methodology MINSA/INS. The Nutritional status was assessed by body mass index. The classification of nutritional status: underweight (BMI≤23,0) (BMI>23 to <28), overweight (BMI≥28 to <32.0) and obesity (BMI≥32). Statistical analysis was performed using complex samples and adjusted by the weighting factor. We Calculated means, proportions. The chi-square and regression logistic. The mean hemoglobin was 13.4 ± 1.6 g / dL. The prevalence of anemia was 23,3% (mild anemia 17.1%, moderate: severe 5,7% and 0,5%). The age 70 to 79 years (OR 1.5; CI 95%:1.1; 2.0),> 80 years (OR 2.1; CI 95%: 1.4; 3.0) and thinness (OR 1.7; CI 95%: 1.2, 2.3) associated with anemia. Ayacucho, Ancash, Lambayeque and Apurimac were the departments with the highest prevalence of anemia. Approximately one quarter of elderly were anemic, being more prevalent in the illiterate, rural and poor. Older age and thinness are associated with anemia in elderly Peruvians.

Concentraciones de yodo en orina y en sal de consumo en mujeres entre 12 a 49 años del Perú

To determine the concentrations of iodine in urine and salt intake in women between 12-49 years of age in Peru. An observational and cross-sectional study was performed. During 2012 and 2013, the study included women aged between 12-49 years living in Peruvian households selected through a probabilistic, stratified and multistage sample. The determination of iodine in urine was performed based on the Sandell-Kolthoff reaction spectrophotometry. The qualitative evaluation of iodine salt was performed by Yoditest and the quantitative by volumetric analysis. Processing was performed using complex samples with weights. Medians, interquartile range and percentiles were obtained. The median urinary iodine levels in the participants was 250.4 ug/L. The regions with elevated median urinary iodine levels were: Moquegua (389.3 ug/L); Tacna (320.5 ug/L); Madre de Dios (319.8 ug/L), and Ucayali (306.0 ug/L); while Puno (192.9 ug/L); Piura (188.1 ug/L) and Tumbes (180.5 ug/L) had medians within ranges recommended by the WHO. The median urinary iodine in pregnant women was 274.6 ug/L (IQR: 283 ug/L).82.5% of the samples had iodine salt ≥30 ppm and 1.9% had values of 0 ppm. The median urinary iodine in Peruvian women is higher than recommended by the WHO and the majority of the samples had adequate iodine concentrations according to WHO recommendations.

Do households that experience crop failure or price shocks reduce animal source food expenditures in rural Peru?

Animal source foods (ASF) are rich in protein, iron, zinc and other nutrients essential for optimal growth and development. We hypothesized that price shocks or crop failure for rural Peruvian households led to reduced expenditures on ASF. Peruvian Young Lives household panel data (n=857) in 2006 and 2009 was used to characterize relations between these shocks and ASF expenditures per adult equivalent (AE) over the previous 15 days, adjusted to 2006 Peruvian soles. Between 2006 and 2009, 6.8% (n=58) of households experienced crop failure and 13.3% (n=114) experienced price shocks. In that same time period, average household ASF expenditures per AE increased by ~50% (19.0 soles+ 16.5 to 27.6 soles+ 18.5) and household ASF expenditures increased from 25.1% to 29.0% of total food expenditures. Experience of price shocks or crop failure did not significantly affect changes in total ASF expenditures or meat expenditures between 2006 and 2009. Crop failure was significantly associated with decreased expenditures on eggs. ASF expenditures and total food expenditures increased during this period, and total ASF expenditures and meat expenditures remained stable regardless of reported shocks to the household.