Personal Worth Research Articles

The Sense of Self Expressed through Giving and Receiving

The therapeutic utilization of the offer of a gift provides a basis for further significant steps in the development of an affirmation of personal worth

The Sōka Gakkai: A Religious Phoenix

The phenomenal growth of Sōka Gakkai in postwar Japan is analyzed in terms of creed, cult, code, and organization. The creed is simple, utilitarian, tradition-oriented, eschatological, and nationalistic. Cult increases the sense of belonging and personal worth and emphasizes making converts. The this-worldly, egalitarian moral code gives even persons from the lowest classes a sense of worth. A complex interlocking network of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal groupings permits maximum participation and minimizes leakage. The Christian church should learn from this sect to reach all groups in society, to emphasize Christian joy, to foster every-member witnessing, to mobilize the laity and develop multiple leadership, and to encourage whole-family conversion.

Ethical standards for group leaders

A group leader is one who assumes the responsibility for a group dealing with interpersonal relationships. The leader is committed to a belief in the dignity and personal worth of each member of a group with whom he works. While demanding the freedom to function as a professional, he also accepts the responsibilities this freedom implies and defends the rights and freedom of his group members. He maintains integrity in his relationships with other professionals and the public. He does not use his specialized knowledge to take personal advantage of group members, nor does he permit himself to be used by others for purposes inconsistent with his own ethical standards. The group leader is expected to abide by and practice the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association and the American Personnel and Guidance Association. He is also expected to practice the following ethical standards that were developed for, and are more directly applicable to, working with groups.

Independent-Study Methods and the Gifted Biology Student

HE ideal setting for learning is one in which the teacher and student work together to help the latter discover the knowledge being transmitted. However, as the educational process became more formalized, interaction between pupil and teacher became minimized to the extent that students typically have no choice (or voice) in selecting the content to be studied, devising techniques for mastering it, or evaluating their progress. The unfortunate consequences of such a one-sided involvement in the teaching-learning-process have been acknowledged by such astute observers of human behavior as Bruner (1966), Rogers (1961), and Shulman (1968). One critical objective of education, which is not met by such an approach, is that of developing self-reliant adults who can think and work independently. It seems almost too obvious to say that if such an end is to be served, students need to be given a greater opportunity to plan, execute, and evaluate their curriculum and its objectives-even if this means rejecting some aspects of the traditional approach to classroom teaching. One alternative, which has experienced some publicity and success, is the independent-study approach. Various experimenters have implemented different plans at different levels and have reported the results (O'Toole, 1968; Rainey, 1965; Glass and Yager, 1970). Most of these plans share the provision that the student be allowed to select a subject for investigation within the specified field of study, develop his own procedures, pursue his investigation independently, and participate in the evaluation of his work. These approaches differ from other innovations, such as programmed instruction, audiotutorial instruction, and progression at an individual rate, in that the focus is on the student actively engaged in a scientific investigation. From the student's perspective, it is accidental that the role of the teacher has shifted from that of instructor to that of resource person. The student is only aware that he must select, direct, and pace his activities and has thus become the central figure in the learning process. As the student's investigation proceeds, a great deal of interest usually is shown by other students and the teacher. Thus, the investigator learns to feel the personal worth of his own ideas: motivation becomes intrinsic. Desirable as all this might be, there are some disadvantages in this approach (Romey, 1970). The greatest of these is that in pursuing a narrower spectrum of content during an investigation, the student may be forced to sacrifice a breadth of knowledge in the discipline, as rneasured by standardized achievement tests. The present study was devised to assess the relative effectiveness (in terms of academic gain) of the independent-study method of instructing talented biology students, as compared with the more traditional teacher-directed method. A third method was included, in an attempt to combine the interest level of independent inAuthors' addresses: John B. Simmons-Washington Community High School, Washington, Ill. 61571. William J. Davis-Elkhart Public Schools, Elkhart, Ill. 62634. Gary C. Ramseyer and James J. Johnson-Psychology Dept., Illinois State University, Normal, Ill. 61761.

The Rituals of Jesus, the Anti-Ritualist

his people's worship. He was known to be meticulous about the fulfillment of temple obligations. Yet, when his companions, newly come to town, were ogling at the new sanctuary under construction, he pooh-poohed the temple, suggesting that many of those attending it to offer sacrifice made a farce of the place by harboring hate in their hearts; it would be torn down far more swiftly than it had been built. It was common knowledge that he prayed a great deal; in fact, he frequently annoyed his disciples by disappearing into the wilderness on just those exciting occasions when they had managed to draw a decent crowd to listen to him. He gave alms; in fact, one of the designated tasks within his group was to hold the common purse and look after beggars and the destitute poor. When he spoke of almsgiving, however, he had sharp criticism for philanthropists who extended their hand only before an appreciative audience. Regarding the priests, he encouraged his people to do their duty by them in all correct observance; as for their personal worth, he spoke of it only with furrowed brow and harsh complaint. He frequented the synagogues, but was on the outs with the officials who staffed them. Jesus was a regular and devout participant in all the customary worship activities of his people. Yet he constantly warned his followers about what a sham worship could be. Why so? One reason is fairly obvious: Worship, although directed toward God, is done in the company of one's fellow men. Hence a continuous temptation to play to the gallery, to turn worship into a dramatic display intended mainly to enhance one's public reputation. Hypocrisy is recognized and feared in most churches as the great spoiler of worship. But there is another characteristic of cult which is well received within most religious traditions, although it runs clean athwart the purpose and policies of Jesus: Worship is seen as a symbolic submission to and service of God, as the chief means of reconciling believers and their Lord. It is

Powerlessness and Mobility Orientations Among Disadvantaged Blacks

IT HAS BEEN OBSERVED that systematic deprivation and oppression of the black American by white America for over three and a half centuries have rendered him relatively powerless.' How do black Americans respond to deprivation and powerlessness? As Blum and his associates2 suggest, blacks, in order to overcome deprivation and to achieve higher socioeconomic status in American society, may follow individual or collective mobility strategies. A black with individual mobility orientation may believe that the individual is responsible for his plight; and it is he who is responsible for changing it. Gonsequently, it is his interest which is of paramount importance, not the interest of blacks as a group. An alternative response is collective mobility orientation, according to which the individual may believe that unless additional economic resources, power, and prestige are made available to all blacks regardless of their personal worth, motivation, proven ability, etc., his own condition cannot basically be improved. Recent surveys have indicated that increasing numbers of blacks have come to favor such group tactics as mass demonstrations, picketing, and boycotts, as a means of achieving a higher social economic status for blacks as a group.3

New Left As Right: Convergent Themes of Political Discontent

Boundaries between the New Left and the traditionalist and libertarian factions of the conventional Right are today often obscured by newly emerging issues. This study attempts to clarify some of the new meanings applied to Left and Right, based on comparative survey data from thirdparty activists of the Los Angeles Peace and Freedom County Council and major party activists of the Los Angeles Democrat and Republican County Central Committees, and on participant observation and content analysis of statements presented by representative spokesmen of the New Left and conventional Right. Three basic points of growing convergence between the two political camps are: (a) a joint attack on the increasingly centralized and bureaucratized structure of authority in government and society; (b) a growing existential theme of personal worth, human dignity, and social justice; and (c) the offering of localized and personalized solutions.

Guidance program for a ghetto school

High school students from the ghetto have special problems that often need more attention than mere talk. Many students lose all sense of personal motivation and worth, for example, due to overcrowded conditions or teacher conflicts in the school, or lack of money or parental guidance outside of school. To help students find concrete solutions to their problems, a new guidance program is suggested for the ghetto school, and the Center for Personal Advancement, now in effect at a Philadelphia high school, is offered as one example.

The impact of human resources on business: Environment must foster sense of personal worth

The state of human relationships must catch up with the state of our hardware; it has become easier to mass produce than to cope with the employees involved in the process. In the efficient and sometimes clinical environment of some firms, employees have lost their feeling of personal value in the over-all effort of the enterprise. How can we develop an environment that will foster a sense of personal worth and esteem? A human resources approach emphasizes the motivation and development of people. It is based on attitudes and practices of key executives; clear workable standards; development of people; and encouragement of innovation. The organizational climate is of critical importance; if it is healthy, the attitudes of the employees within it is healthy. A hostile, irritating, and unstable environment will induce a like response from its employees.

Responses of sisters to an experience in sensitivity

My experience with sisters began about three years ago when I was asked by the Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth to participate in a Mental Health Institute. I presented a paper entitled "Teachers' Atti tudes and their Effects on Child Development." In it I indicated that children secure a sense of dignity, personal worth, self-confidence, and motivation for learning through the emotional relationships they estab lish with their teachers, and that many times the intellectual aspects of school are secondary in importance to the relationships established or lost. I pointed out that the degree to which teachers are able to provide children with such experiences is related to the degree to which they are aware of their own human needs, aspirations, frustrations, and atti tudes. I concluded by saying that sensitivity to these internal concerns should not be defended against, but rather perceived as starting points for continued professional growth, productivity, and self-realization. After I had finished, many sisters asked how I would implement such an "experience in sensitivity." I immediately thought of the possibility of forming "sensitivity groups." That is, employing group methods to help sisters achieve greater awareness of their feelings, attitudes, and motivations, and to increase their interpersonal sensitivity and com petency. This unique learning method, developed and used with differ ent professional groups over the last two decades, focuses on the in vivo experience in groups, where the personal, open, frank, feelings, thoughts, and reactions of the individuals themselves are the data and sources of learning, and where an attempt is made within the context of the here and now to create and understand those conditions in one

The internationalization of human rights.

More and more, workers in the mental health field are coming to the realization that the mental health of the individual is deeply rooted in his society's willingness to give him a sense of personal worth and dignity. The promotion of these human rights throughout the world was mandated in the United Nations Charter over twenty years ago. How the task has fared is discussed in this paper.

Responses to Interpersonal Conflict by Middle Class Males in Guadalajara and Michigan1

The subjects used in the research were middle-class males. While there is little detailed research on middle-class Mexicans (Wagley and Harris 1955) there are perhaps enough general observations to permit an estimation of the validity of the instrument. There is a consensus that the core of the Mexican male's self-concept is more deeply based on emotional relations than his American counterpart. In part this is expressed through friendship relations. The American concept seems to be more deeply associated with material achievements. Mexicans tend to define reality in terms of interpersonal relationships, while Americans are more prone to define the world in terms of external, objective relationships (Diaz-Guerrero 1959). In outlining the forms which this emphasis on the emotional and the interpersonal takes in Mexican society Gillin (1961) cites personalism as a unifying value in middle-class Mexican life. Drawing on many sources Gillin asserts that the middle-status Mexican requires strong personal in his social relations; trust is only extended to persons with whom such a relation exists. As Ramirez puts it, . . . the Mexican can cross himself, humiliate himself . . . but can't 'crack' himself, that is, let the outer world penetrate to his intimacy (1961: 99). In contrast, the American may enter into a relationship of impersonal confidence or trust without intimacy, a relationship unknown among Mexicans according to Gillin. Moreover, for Mexicans, personal worth derives more from intimate relations than from visible achievement.

Religion in action for mental health

To be an effective force in the community, religion must concern itself with the whole man. Religions differ in their theological definitions of the soul, its origin and its destiny, but they can agree that a healthy soul is less likely to be found in a sick mind and a sick body. The reverse also is true. A fear-ridden, authoritarian religion that overemphasizes guilt can contribute to mental illness. On the other hand, equally disturbing is the simple "peace of mind" cult, which overemphasizes the euphoric illusion of happiness. The easy formula for living prescribed by pastoral tranquilizers weakens the tolerance for tension so necessary for facing problems. There are unhealthy spiritual outlooks that sicken the mind and body. Since at least a professed belief in God is nigh universal among Ameri cans, organized religion must assume some direct responsibility for the condition of that ten per cent of our population suffering some form of mental disorder or emotional imbalance. Soul, mind, and body are so close to each other that they must catch each other's diseases. Certainly a mature faith helps to provide immunity against mental illness, but it must be an internalized belief, attuned to reality yet independent of social fluctuations, inspiring self-confidence and a sense of personal worth yet encouraging fellowship cleansed of self-hating prejudice; a faith daring because it is loving, sturdy because it is compassionate, hopeful because it is kind.

Parents' and Adolescents' Perceptions of Each Other and the Adolescents' Self‐Perception

The study examines relationships between adolescents' self‐perception, their perception of parents, and parents' perception of them. 45 junior high school students took the Mooney Problem Check List and the California Test of Personality, first as they perceived themselves and again as they perceived their parents. They responded to “What sort of person is your mother (father)?” Parents completed the personality test as they perceived their adolescents. “Low,” “Medium,” and “High” problem groups were formed on the basis of number of problems indicated on the check list. “Low” and “High” groups perceived themselves to be better adjusted than their parents. Parents of the “Low” group perceived them to be poorly adjusted in such areas as self‐reliance, social skills and personal worth, while parents of the “High” group perceived them to have better adjustment in these areas. “Medium” and “High” groups indicated most problems concerning money, work, and the future.

Factors Related to Differential Achievement Among Boys in Ninth-Grade Algebra

A UNIVERSAL problem for secondary school counselors is the underachiever. The reason for the prevalence of this problem is that school per sonnel generally base their predictions of aca demic success solely on the results of intelligence tests. Some students enjoy a high degree of aca demic success which is explained on the basis of intelligence test results, while others of compara ble intellectual potential consistently achieve beI low their expected attainment. An analysis of j the literature and research pertaining to differi enees in achievement among students leads on to I a consideration of the non-intellective factors, i.e., those variables not measured by intelligence tests. One of these factors appears to be the student's self concept. Recently, a factor analysis (9) of tests measuring the self concept showed five inde pendent factors. Smith suggested that this helps to explain the poor correspondence between differ ent tests of the self concept and the low correla tion between tests of the self concept and external criteria of adjustment. The use of self concept as a construct is ques tionable because of the various meanings associ ated with it by different personality theorists. Hall and Lindsey (4: 545) describe two usages commonly given to the self concept: some per ceive the self concept as a group of psychological processes which serve as a determinant of be havior while others conceive it as a cluster of at titudes and feelings which the individual holds in regard to himself. Most measures of the self con cept gave scores which are treated as positive or negative points on a high to low value continum despite evidence which suggests that a meaning ful concept of the self comprises an aggregate of factors rather than an evaluation along one dimension (8). Much of the research in this area pertains to the personal correlates of achievement and under achievement. Morgan (7) in a study of high ability students at the college level found achieve ment related to a variety of personal and traits. Go wan (2), in an inquiry into the family backgrounds of high school achievers and under achievers with IQ 130 or higher, found differences in the ability to conduct themselves easily in situations and make easy adjustments. Hallock (5) studied the relationship between reading achievement and the attitudes which children hold about themselves and their achievement. His data indicate that feelings of personal worth contribute significantly to achievement in reading. Gowan (3) drew on related research to develop the con cept that achievement and underachievement in the gifted may be viewed as social and asocial responses of the individual to proper stimulation regarding developmental tasks either tendered or denied by the parental and educational environ ments. The purpose of this study was to ascertain if there are differences in self concept as measured by the eight scales of the Minnesota Counseling Inventory (MCI), (1), for those students who scored in the top quartile and those students who scored below the mean on the Seattle Algebra Achievement Test. It is assumed that Smith's (9) five factors comprising the self concept are meas ured by the MCI. This assumption is substanti ated by the nature of the findings of the other re searchers (7,2,3,5) and the descriptions of the eight scales of the MCI (1). Furthermore, Leton and Walter (6), in a factor analytic study of the MCI, found that this test in effect measures five separate factors. The major hypothesis for this study is that achievers will tend to demonstrate superiority on all scales of the Minnesota Counsel ing Inventory.

The Implications of Pentecostal Religion for Intellectualism, Politics, and Race Relations

The teaching of Pentecostal evangelist A. A. Allen are examined with reference to the relationship between Pentecostal religious thought and three areas of secular life. We find that the strict scripturalism and belief in miraculous healing sharply delimit the area of experience for which science is regarded as relevant. The eschatological teachings encourage withdrawal from political activities rather than the espousal of right-wing political views often imputed to fundamentalist Christian groups. Literal interpretation of the Bible and emphasis on spiritual criteria of personal worth result in a strong opposition, on strictly religious grounds, to racial segregation. The movement is analyzed in terms of the history of Pentecostal groups and inferences about the social composition of Allen's adherents. We conclude that the movement is primarily a religious solution to problems of illness, poverty, and status deprivation. These problems are conceived of in individualistic terms and solved in personalistic religious faith. Religious groups such as this ought not to be confused with quasi-political groups that mix general Christian beliefs with anti-Communism or segregation.

Relation of Self-Concepts to Beginning Achievement in Reading

Based on the reported association between poor self-concepts and reading disabilities, this exploratory study was an effort to determine which was the antecedent phenomenon. Measures of mental ability and self-concept were obtained for children in their first semester of kindergarten in two Detroit elementary schools. Two and one-half years later, measures were obtained of their progress in reading and the self-concept measures repeated. The measures of self-concept taken in kindergarten proved significantly predictive of progress in reading but not significantly related to mental test scores. Two aspects of self-concept, (a) feelings of competence and (b) feelings of personal worth, were noted.

A New Concept of Performance Appraisal

ERFORMANCE appraisal is a major subject of controversy in management circles. While business leaders see need for appraisal systems, they are frequently disappointed in them. This article presents a new concept of performance appraisal, one that has been developed at United Air Lines following three years of study. This article suggests that personnel appraisal is capable of being used successfully as a supervisory tool. While most other firms use personal appraisal for salary administration, promotion, or internal control, United's program specifically limits its use in these areas. We believe assisting employee to maintain satisfactory performance on his present job is a worthwhile objective in itself and have other programs for administering salaries and appraising potential. Also, is apparent that further research should be conducted into what actually takes place during and following an appraisal interview. Studies reported in article suggest that a great many supervisors and executives have quite erroneous notions concerning motivations and attitudes of employees toward these interviews and of changes in behavior and other benefits which may result from them. Mixed feelings concerning performance appraisal have been expressed frequently in publications directed to management-such as Harvard Business Review, American Management Association's Personnel, and Journal of Business. In Harvard Business Review Douglas McGregor says: Of course, managers cannot escape making judgments about subordinates. Without such evaluations, salary and promotion policies cannot be administered sensibly. But, in his conclusion he condemns conventional performance appraisal because it places manager in untenable position of judging personal worth of his subordinates and of acting on these judgments.1 In Personnel2 researchers from University of Minnesota report that 12 of 22 firms studied expressed dissatisfaction with their present systems of management appraisal. This is not a controversy of recent origin. Thomas L. Whisler says that this combination of interest and dissatisfaction exists despite fact that for four decades many competent people have seriously studied whole problem of rating and have endeavored to develop answers to what seem to be major difficulties involved.3 Whisler believes the chief impedi-

SAVINGS AND FINANCES OF THE UPPER INCOME CLASSES1

SAVINGS AND FINANCES OF THE UPPER INCOME CLASSES¹

Religion and Scholarship

There are times when we disengage ourselves from our pragmatic attitude to men and things and direct our thoughts to the manner of life of those who by the sheer power of personal worth keep strong our faith in moral and spiritual values. In this respect the life of Sir Robert Falconer has peculiar significance both for those of us in the University who served under or with him and also for the large number of persons and institutions touched by him in his varied relations—national, international and ecclesiastical. The study of his contributions to our religious thought and life is only one aspect of a life that was singularly woven in one piece. The legacy of what he has written in the field of New Testament and related studies brings to view the mainspring of the creative forces in his character and those principles which governed him in the execution of his academic and public duties and determined his choice of the interest and the movements with which he associated himself.