Personal Possessions Research Articles

On stopping yourself: Self-relevance facilitates response inhibition.

It is well documented that stimuli associated with the self are easier to process than identical material paired with other people (i.e., self-prioritization effect). Surprisingly, however, relatively little is known about how self-relevance impacts core aspects of executive functioning, notably response inhibition. Accordingly, here we used a stop-signal task to establish how effectively responses toward self-relevant (vs. other-relevant) stimuli can intentionally be inhibited. In the context of personal possession, participants were required to classify stimuli (i.e., pens and pencils) based on ownership (i.e., owned-by-self vs. owned-by-friend/stranger), unless an occasional auditory tone indicated that the response should be withheld. The results revealed the benefits of self-relevance on response inhibition. Compared with items owned by a friend or stranger, responses to self-owned objects were inhibited more efficiently. These findings confirm that self-relevance facilitates executive control.

Redefining Sustainable Development

Millions of papers have been published and the same amounts of discussions have been made on the topic of Sustainable Development. Despite that, the situation is getting worsen day by day, not even meager progress has been reported. The culture, which is developed in society wherein, dead are worshipped and living people are crushed under the legs of power politics. It has stolen humanity from humans the structured society has created an institutional crisis and emotional crisis. People are suffering from dark emotions irrespective of any group of age. Instead of debating about the topic, we should start nudging society for sustainable development at the micro-level. Working at the Macro level for sustainable development without talking about the micro-level is not only futility but also wasting of resources. The ubiquitous three monkeys of Mahatma Gandhi depicting moral gestures see no evil, speak no evil, and hear no evil are the ardent requirement of the 21st Century as it talks about emotions at the micro-level as it talks about how socially communicability is needed in society. 
 It is noteworthy that the small three monkey figurine was among the few belongings of Mahatma Gandhi that always remained with him. However, “A photograph of the few personal possessions which Mahatma Gandhi has left to the world and spoons appear in the picture along with his favorite book of songs and the figurine of the three monkeys whom he used to call his gurus. The Monkeys symbolize the injunctions to speak no evil, to see no evil, and to hear no evil.” In this paper, an attempt has been made to establish a trinity model of Gandhi, Buddha, and Dark Emotions which can help society to think positive to irradiate dark emotions which in turns helps in sustainable development

Managing “Property”

Abstract Probate inventories helped to support the established social and economic order in colonial Jamaica. These documents were part of the legal process of winding up an estate after a death and presented an account of personal possessions that had belonged to a decedent. They facilitated the transfer of property to heirs and identified those parts of an estate that were available for the repayment of debts. The inventories contain lists of enslaved people, representing them as a type of “property,” and so these documents form a major part of the archive of Jamaican slavery. This article explores the practices, aims, and assumptions of the people who produced the inventories, developing our understanding of slaveholder culture in the British Caribbean and of the bureaucratic and accounting techniques that facilitated slave management.

On the record - Interview with Shaun Shelly, Researcher at the University of Pretoria and the Policy, Advocacy and Human Rights lead at TB HIV Care, South Africa

In November 2020 Anine Kriegler interviewed Shaun Shelly about recent developments in South African Drug Policy in the wake of the 2018 Constitutional Court judgment decriminalising personal possession of cannabis, and the subsequent Cannabis for Private Purposes Bill. Shaun is a researcher at the University of Pretoria Department of Family Medicine where he is part of the team implementing a community oriented primary care approach to address drug use in the City of Tshwane. He is the founder of the South African Drug Policy Week and is the drug policy lead at TB HIV Care, a non-profit organisation that works to prevent, find, and treat TB, HIV, and other major diseases by targeting interventions to address the needs of populations at risk, such as inmates, sex workers, and people who inject drugs. Shaun is a founding member and chair of the South African Network of People Who Use Drugs and the former Deputy Secretary of the United Nations Vienna NGO Committee on Narcotic Drugs. He sits on various other national and international task teams and advisory boards on drugs.
 Anine is a board member of the South African Drug Policy Initiative, a voluntary association that aims to reform South African drug laws, and which submitted an objection to the Bill.

On the record - Interview with Shaun Shelly, Researcher at the University of Pretoria and the Policy, Advocacy and Human Rights lead at TB HIV Care, South Africa

In November 2020 Anine Kriegler interviewed Shaun Shelly about recent developments in South African Drug Policy in the wake of the 2018 Constitutional Court judgment decriminalising personal possession of cannabis, and the subsequent Cannabis for Private Purposes Bill. Shaun is a researcher at the University of Pretoria Department of Family Medicine where he is part of the team implementing a community oriented primary care approach to address drug use in the City of Tshwane. He is the founder of the South African Drug Policy Week and is the drug policy lead at TB HIV Care, a non-profit organisation that works to prevent, find, and treat TB, HIV, and other major diseases by targeting interventions to address the needs of populations at risk, such as inmates, sex workers, and people who inject drugs. Shaun is a founding member and chair of the South African Network of People Who Use Drugs and the former Deputy Secretary of the United Nations Vienna NGO Committee on Narcotic Drugs. He sits on various other national and international task teams and advisory boards on drugs.
 Anine is a board member of the South African Drug Policy Initiative, a voluntary association that aims to reform South African drug laws, and which submitted an objection to the Bill.

An Examination of the Association Between Subjective Distress and Functional Connectivity During Discarding Decisions in Hoarding Disorder

BackgroundIndividuals with hoarding disorder (HD) demonstrate exaggerated subjective distress and hyperactivation of cingulate and insular cortex regions when discarding personal possessions. No prior study has sought to determine whether this subjective distress is associated with specific profiles of abnormal brain function in individuals with HD. MethodsWe used multimodal canonical correlation analysis plus joint independent component analysis to test whether five hoarding-relevant domains of subjective distress when deciding to discard possessions (anxiety, sadness, monetary value, importance, and sentimental attachment) are associated with functional magnetic resonance imaging–measured whole-brain functional connectivity in 72 participants with HD and 44 healthy controls. ResultsThree extracted components differed between HD participants and healthy control subjects. Each of these components depicted an abnormal profile of functional connectivity in HD participants relative to control subjects during discarding decisions, and a specific distress response profile. One component pair showed a relationship between anxiety ratings during discarding decisions and connectivity among the pallidum, perirhinal ectorhinal cortex, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Another component comprised sadness ratings during discarding decisions and connectivity in the pallidum, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The third component linked HD brain connectivity in several dorsolateral prefrontal cortex regions with perceived importance ratings during discarding decisions. ConclusionsThe findings indicate that in patients with HD, the subjective intensity of anxiety, sadness, and perceived possession importance is related to abnormal functional connectivity in key frontal and emotional processing brain regions. The findings are discussed in terms of emerging neurobiological models of HD.

Cloth Lanyards as a Source of Intermittent Transmission of Candida auris on an ICU.

Candida auris has been implicated in ICU outbreaks worldwide and is notable for being difficult to identify and treat, its resilience in the environment, and significant patient mortality associated with invasive disease. Here, we describe a small C. auris outbreak and how it was terminated. Single-center, observational. Two general adult ICUs at an urban U.K. teaching hospital. All patients positive for C. auris during the 5-month outbreak were included (n = 7). Stepwise implementation of enhanced infection prevention and control precautions was introduced including twice-weekly screening, contact tracing, isolation precautions, and environmental decontamination. A detailed environmental screen was performed to identify potential reservoirs. This included the patient bed space and clinical equipment and a frequently handled cloth lanyard attached to a key used to access controlled drugs. Personal possessions such as mobile phones, lanyards, and identification badges were also screened. The index case and six linked acquisitions were identified. Four of six (67%) patients were identified after discharge of all known previous C. auris cases from ICU, highlighting potential for an environmental reservoir. Environmental screening identified C. auris from a patient bed space following deep cleaning, prompting review and enhancement of cleaning procedures. The controlled drug cloth lanyard was positive for C. auris, which prompted removal and culture of all staff lanyards. C. auris was identified on 1/100 staff lanyards (1%). No mobile phones or identification badges were positive for C. auris. The outbreak terminated following withdrawal of lanyards from ICU. This outbreak further implicates environmental reservoirs as sustaining C. auris ICU outbreaks. Identification of C. auris on cloth lanyards highlights the need to identify commonly handled moveable objects during an outbreak. We suggest that ICUs with a C. auris outbreak should investigate similar infrequently cleaned items as potential reservoirs and review their policies on lanyard use.

Ownership and Use of Maps in England, 1660–1760

ABSTRACT Maps became increasingly affordable in England between the mid-seventeenth and mid-eighteenth centuries. A survey of inventories made for probate or compiled privately, personal library catalogues and atlas subscription lists shows that maps were owned by people from different levels of society and that, irrespective of status, the maps served two principal purposes: decoration and instruction. Mapmakers and sellers were aware of these interests and worded their advertisements accordingly, emphasizing the ornamental and intellectually ‘useful’ qualities of their maps. For their owners, the maps were usually deeply personal possessions. The different types of maps owned, and the ways they were used, tended to reflect an important aspect of the owners’ identity, such as their travels, profession, family history and attachment to a particular place.

Assessment of Squalor in Migrant Colonies of Thiruvalla Province of Kerala, India using Rapid Survey Technique.

Background:Domestic squalor refers to households that are extremely cluttered, in a filthy condition, and where the accumulation of items such as personal possessions, rubbish, excrement and decomposing food creates an environment that jeopardizes the health and wellbeing of the occupant(s). In India, an estimated 258 million are migrants. They are more likely to live in squalor due to inferior socio-economic status and no permanent residence. This poses a threat to the health of the migrants and the neighbors.Objective:To assess the squalor and morbidity pattern among the migrants of Migrant colonies in Thiruvalla using Rapid survey technique.Methodology:The state of squalor in migrant colonies was assessed by Lot Quality Assurance Sampling Methodology using the Environment Cleanliness and Clutter Scale (ECCS). The sample size for each lot/colony was '14' dwellings according to LQAS table. The details were collected from 14 inhabitants of different dwellings of the same colony. The inhabitants were selected randomly and were excluded if he belonged to the same dwelling. Fifteen colonies were randomly selected to achieve the sample size of 210 (15*14). The study was done in Tiruvalla municipality.Results and Conclusion:Only two colonies (n = 15) were squalor free. Majority of the dwellings (n = 210) were having an ECCS score between 13 and 15. Common ailments affecting migrants include Common cold, Skin disorders, and dental caries and gastritis. Squalor was found in most of the migrant colonies as they are living in inhuman conditions.

ЄВРОПЕЇЗАЦІЯ ТА РЕКОДИФІКАЦІЯ. УЗУФРУКТ

The article examines the features of usufruct in the European countries of Romano-Germanic law, determines the terms for the implementation in the Law of Ukraine of the best practice of usufruct in terms of Europeanization and Recodification. The peculiarities of usufruct in some countries of Romano-Germanic law, particularly in Germany, France, Poland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Georgia, Moldova and Russia are studied. Usufruct, which is a flexible and universally recognized in the legal systems of Western Europe property right of personal possession for use, which is treated as an independent property right to another's property in the countries of Roman legal family or a kind of easement in the countries of German legal family, remains unknown to most countries – republics of the former Soviet Union. The law of Ukraine also does not provide for the institution of usufruct and regulates the relationship of long-term use of someone else's real estate through a number of limited property rights (emphyteusis, superficies, the right to economic management, the right to operational management) and obligational legal structures (usually land lease and property management). The authors came to the conclusion that it is necessary to introduce the institute of usufruct into the Ukrainian law by supplementing the Civil Code of Ukraine with a new chapter "Uzufruct", the framework provisions of which are proposed in this paper. In the law of Ukraine it is expedient to recognize usufruct as an independent, different from easement, real right of personal possession for use, which serves as a general provision on emphyteusis (the right to use someone else's land for agricultural purposes). In this regard, the provisions of Chapter 32 of the Civil Code of Ukraine on usufruct should be applied to relations under emphyteusis, unless otherwise provided by the provisions of the Central Committee on emphyteusis and does not follow from its essence. According to its purpose, the legal structure of the usufruct can perform any functions of personal possession for the use of another's property, which allows the use of this legal structure in any area of property use, regardless of whether the purpose is income or other socially useful result (charity, etc.). The absence of usufruct in the national law hinders the effective transformation of legal titles on a state and municipal property by waiving the right of economic management and the right of operative management in terms of recodification of the civil legislation, and does not promote formation of the full-fledged land market and its steady development in the terms of cancellation of the moratorium on sale of the agricultural lands, conducting commodity of agricultural production in Ukraine. Regarding the recodification and cancellation of the Commercial Code, usufruct is the most acceptable replacement of the right of economic management and the right of operative management. Along with long-term lease and property management, the usufruct is functionally similar to the right to economic management and the right to operational management. Unlike property management and lease, usufruct provides for paid or gratuitous use of property in the user's own interest (usufructuary), imperatively defined by law, the content of the rights of participants and a list of grounds for their termination under the rules of property rights.

Outside of Memories We Belong, Women of Yugoslavia

This article addresses the issues surrounding the Yugoslav Civil War by offering my personal narrative in relation to loss and disappearance resulting from the exposure to war and sanctions in the nineties and the “Merciful Angel“ operation of the bombing of Serbia by NATO in 1999. It thus focuses on the female interpretation of people, ways of life, buildings and human artifacts belonging to the historical period of communist Yugoslavia which once were, yet no longer remain. The work with archives, especially the photographs which originate from my personal family possession, brings closer these ghosts of the past times to the present moment. At the same time, photography is a means to investigate the position and treatment of women during and after the period of Yugoslavia, their efforts and struggles for emancipation. The usage of photography as a visual narrative allows an insight into the lives of women during communism through the lens of my closest female family members. The article tackles different issues concerning women in communist Yugoslavia, and follows certain steps in their history, from the emancipation following the Second World War and participation of women in battle as combatants and nurses, their efforts in rebuilding the country and subsequent reestablishment of patriarchal values which occurred at the start of Yugoslav Civil war and conflicts that marked it. Autoethnography as a research method combined with personal narrative allows a deeper understanding of culture and values of Yugoslav society and their subsequent clash. In addition to this, it celebrates the importance of female voice and activism in the constant battle against patriarchy and women who chose to defy it by acknowledging responsibility and the patriarchal nature of war. Photographic practice-based research allows an insight into individual stories which form a deeper understanding of the pre- and post- war Yugoslav society and political circumstances surrounding it. Author(s): Ivana Mancic Title (English): Outside of Memories We Belong, Women of Yugoslavia Journal Reference: Identities: Journal for Politics, Gender and Culture, Vol. 17, No. 2-3 (Winter 2020) Publisher: Institute of Social Sciences and Humanities - Skopje Page Range: 82-88 Page Count: 7 Citation (English): Ivana Mancic, “Outside of Memories We Belong, Women of Yugoslavia,” Identities: Journal for Politics, Gender and Culture, Vol. 17, No. 2-3 (Winter 2020): 82-88. Author Biography Ivana Mancic, Nottingham Trent University Ivana Mancic is a Ph.D, researcher in Fine Art, School of Art and Design at Nottingham Trent University, U.K., with the focus on art practice aimed at the production of multi-disciplinary artworks, videos and installations, the purpose of which is to display the personal narrative to address the issues of war, loss and belonging, related to the specificity of the ex-Yugoslav context in order to contribute to the developing of the female voice of artists and pacifists in contemporary art. The personal narrative is presented in the written form through artworks, texts, essays and reflections on war experiences and current world crises through intersections between the present and the past.

A critical analysis of individual patient factors in gaining access to healthcare

Background: Pakistan is one of the largest host of refugees. People in Pakistan have bad access to healthcare not only due to bad facilities but also due to discrimination based on their personal characteristics and possessions. The behavior not only damages the dignity of the people being targeted but also creates hindrances in further seeking professional medical help and follow-ups thus deteriorating the health status of the community as a whole. Health providers possess a moral commitment to encourage dignity and treat their patients without any kind of discrimination in their behavior. Patient experiences of discrimination result in delay in seeking healthcare, they do not stick to advice of professionals and ultimately poor health. The objective of this study is to identify sources of discrimination and its effects on patients' health status and their level of satisfaction. Methods: This descriptive study took place in Outdoor Patient Department, Mayo Hospital, Lahore. 170 patients were selected from all the patients coming to OPD with equal male to female ratio. Each patient was given a questionnaire containing relevant questions to know whether they faced any sort of discriminatory behavior or not. Results: 66% females and 49% males of the study sample experienced discrimination at some stage of their hospital visit. Conclusion: Our study concluded that females experienced more discrimination than males. Therefore, gender is the most important factor when it comes to discriminatory experiences. Moreover, people with the higher income had fewer incidents of discrimination than their counterparts.

The importance of personal possessions in the construction of institutional ambiance for elderly with Alzheimer's disease

AbstractBackgroundThe process of institutionalization could lead to the loss of autonomy, individuality and familiarity for the elderly. (MACHADO, 2018). The possibility of decreasing functional capacity in the elderly requires new projects and constant adaptations in the built environment, furniture and objects. (PAIVA, SOBRAL & VILLAROUCO, 2016) Such as customized environments become more important as some areas of the brain stop working as they should, like in residents with Alzheimer's, who might feel lost and without a sense of self. (ZEISEL, 2006) Continuous environmental mementos contribute to the sense of belonging to a place, in more active processes of reminiscence and reimmersion. Each artifact might serve as a trigger to remembrance, contributing to the continuous sense of identity. (ROWLES, OSWALD & HUNTER, 2003).MethodA literature search was conducted in Ageline, Researchgate, Alzheimer's Association, SciVerse ScienceDirect and Google Scholar databases. A total of 30 items were reviewed, in the english or portuguese language, from 1983 to 2019.ResultIt urges the acknowledgment of personal objects for promotion and improvement of the relationship between the elderly diagnosed with Alzheimer's and the environment, although it lacks literature review focusing on recent empirical research in this area.ConclusionGiven that personal possessions could reinforce identity aspects, life achievements, attachments and important places, understanding this relationship could influence in improving social relations, higher environment‐related autonomy, and the maintenance of a more welcoming ambience.

Home no.7 (a sample of)

“Home” describes an intangible concept. It is the emotional and meaningful relationship between people and their familiar environment. In living conditions of individuation, temporariness and mobility, personal possessions gain utmost importance in the establishment of a sense of “home”. They become material icons of durability and continuity in everyday life which carry references to people, places, the past and, most importantly, to oneself – one’s identity and history. Home No. 7 (a sample of) is a practice-led study of this hypothesis. The project attempts to record and maintain a sample of a domestic interior – once regarded as “home” – created in the North Room on 262 Bethnal Green Road at the time it was about to be dismantled. The sample of ‘home’ is contained within a box. The interior of the box is divided into compartments, each of which holds a different means of registration: casts, cards, photos, samples, drawings and texts. The quasi-scientific way of registration aims at a clear presentation of the information recorded and an objective point of view. Yet, these means of objective recording inadvertently reveal personal systems of reference created by the inhabitant. The text that accompanies and reflects on the project discusses the relationship between an individual and his/her personal possessions drawing from the fields of anthropology, philosophy, history, critical theory and studies of material culture. Project and text attempt to understand the material “at home” constructed by one’s personal possessions and the immaterial “at home” created by their relationship to their owner.

The costs and benefits of cannabis control policies .

As is the case for most drugs, cannabis use has costs and benefits, and so do the policies that attempt to minimize the first and maximize the second. This article summarizes what we know about the harmful effects of recreational cannabis use and the benefits of medical cannabis use under the policy of prohibition that prevailed in developed countries until 2012. It outlines three broad ways in which cannabis prohibition may be relaxed, namely, the depenalization of personal possession and use, the legalization of medical use, and the legalization of adult recreational use. It reviews evidence to date on the impacts of each of these forms of liberalization on the costs and benefits of cannabis use. It makes some plausible conjectures about the future impacts of the commercialization of cannabis using experience from the commercialization of the alcohol, tobacco, and gambling industries. Cannabis policy entails unavoidable trade-offs between competing social values in the face of considerable uncertainty about the effects that more liberal cannabis policies will have on cannabis use and its consequences for better or worse.

Issues in the establishment of a therapeutic cannabis market under Jamaica's Dangerous Drugs Amendment Act 2015

IntroductionIn 2015, Jamaica became the first Caribbean country to decriminalise personal cannabis possession, legalise home cultivation and establish a commercial therapeutic cannabis market via the passage of the Dangerous Drugs Amendment Act (DDAA). AimTo critically analyse implementation of the legal therapeutic cannabis market under the DDAA. MethodsSynthesis of findings from semi-structured face-to-face interviews with 22 key informants (KIs) from the government, industry, academia and NGO sector, unstructured interviews with illegal growers, and field observations of licensed and illegal operators. ResultsKIs identified a number of challenges in implementing therapeutic market provisions under DDAA, including a limited buy-in from key government agencies; delays in developing a framework for quality assurance; and lack of access to banking services. Public sector actors stressed the challenges imposed by the UN drug conventions and need to maintain favourable diplomatic relationship with the US federal government, with the consequence of prioritising enforcement to prevent diversion and inversion. Implementation of the Alternative Development Programme in two traditional cannabis-growing communities experienced challenges with land titles and frictions in local communities. High compliance costs and limited skills to meet the envisioned medical standards presented barriers for traditional farmers. Many KIs conceptualised the purchasing of cannabis from the regulated market as “recreational” rather than medical, reflecting the marketing and limited information on medical applications at point of sale. Licensees’ reliance on foreign investment puts local industry at risk of predatory shareholder agreements, but also provides needed investment and expertise. ConclusionExternal international factors (e.g. UN treaties, correspondent banking with the US) and conflicting domestic government agency visions for the reform played a significant role in the DDAA implementation. As cannabis law reform spreads beyond Western jurisdictions, consideration of pre-existing social, cultural and economic conditions of developing countries will be important.

Critical terms in futures studies

“Hope” and “optimism” remain and encourage to “time travel” into a “utopian” world, start “dreaming” and “imagining” how life after the global pandemic and the COVID-19 crisis might look like. Despite tourism’s decisive role as a driver of economic prosperity, its share of 8% of global greenhouse emissions in 2018 making it also one of the contributors of human-induced impacts, and the sustainability of the industry is constantly challenged. The author uses the example of sharing economy to demonstrate how basically everything can be monetised, from personal possessions to time and establishes clear links to the tourism industry.

A snapshot of Late Mesolithic life through death: An appraisal of the lithic and osseous grave goods from the Castelnovian burial of Mondeval de Sora (Dolomites, Italy).

The Late Mesolithic in Southern Europe is dated to the 7th and the first part of the 6th millennia BCE and is marked by profound changes which are mostly evident in the technical know-how and tool-kit of the last hunter-fisher-gatherer societies. The significance of this phase also relates to the fact that it precedes the Early Neolithic, another period of major transformations of human societies. Nonetheless, the Late Mesolithic still remains a poorly known age in this area. A burial discovered at Mondeval de Sora (Northern Italy) in 1987, represents a unique window into this period. In this paper, we provide a detailed analysis of more than 50 lithic and osseous artifacts associated with this burial. We highlight important contextual data regarding the techno-economic dimension and the notion of personal burial possessions. Based on the association and location of some items, we propose a new interpretation of the social status of this individual and the possible impact of technological innovation on the social organization and symbolic sphere of Late Mesolithic groups.

Zmiana zachowań rynkowych pokolenia Z

This article presents considerations on the changes of the consumer behaviour of generation Z, manifested in the way purchasing decisions are made and needs are met. The purpose of this article is to analyse the conditions for the development of new forms of purchasing processes and alterna-tive consumption patterns. The author pointed out factors causing young purchasers’ increased in-terest in innovative solutions in the sphere of consumption, and, in particular, the expanding scope of internet communication and the scale of use of mobile devices. It has been proved that the gen-eration Z consumption model is strongly embedded in virtual reality and includes an alternative approach to satisfying needs. An attempt was made to answer the question regarding the reason for a change in approach of the youngest generation to consumption and the development of new trends, and in particu-lar of the resignation from purchasing goods in favour of gaining access to them. The author indicated certain premises increasing generation Z’s inclination to use some goods or services only when required, and not acquiring them for personal possession, including, in particular, growing awareness of the negative social and environmental consequences of excessive consump-tion. Benefits of adapting the collaborative consumption model in the form of prosumer activities were highlighted. The presented topic allowed to show the changing approach to consumption as a challenge for enterprises facing the need to react both to the changing mobile technological environment and to the new, emerging generation of consumers. So far, this problem has not been studied in detail, therefore the conclusions of the article on changing consumer attitudes of gen-eration Z may be used by manufacturers to take actions consistent with the expectations of this significant group of young, mobile buyers.

Justifications for Decriminalizing Drugs

Drug decriminalization calls for reduced control and penalties compared to existing laws. Proponents of drug decriminalization generally support the use of fines or other punishments to replace prison terms, and often propose systems whereby illegal drug users who are caught would be fined, but would not receive a permanent criminal record as a result. A central feature of drug decriminalization is the concept of harm reduction.
 Drug decriminalization is in some ways an intermediate between prohibition and legalization, and has been criticized as being "the worst of both worlds", in that drug sales would still be illegal, thus perpetuating the problems associated with leaving production and distribution of drugs to the criminal underworld, while also failing to discourage illegal drug use by removing the criminal penalties that might otherwise cause some people to choose not to use drugs.
 In 2001 began treating use and possession of small quantities of drugs as a public health issue. This also decreases the amount of money the government spends fighting a war on drugs and money spent keeping drug users incarcerated. A number of countries have similarly moved to reduce the penalties associated with drug use and personal possession.