Personal Audio Research Articles

Electric Signals in Machine Learning Using AppInventor and Arduino

Recent developments in Artificial Intelligence (AI) have introduced machine learning and its applications into everyday life. As technology becomes increasingly integrated into the educational system, researchers are focused on developing tools that allow students to interact with machine learning in a way that sparks their curiosity and teaches them essential concepts. Our instructional proposal, titled “Electric Signals in Machine Learning Using App Inventor,” focuses on applying learning, transfer, and classification models of audio spectrograms to teach students in the first year of high Secondary school (A’ Lyceum) fundamental concepts of machine learning. This is accomplished using MIT App Inventor and Arduino’s visual programming environments. Students will use the website “Personal Audio Classifier” to train an audio model and App Inventor to connect computer science and machine learning. In addition, with the aid of the Arduino microcontroller, students will engage in visualising Morse code signals and investigating Physical Computing, allowing them to create digital solutions that connect to the real world.

Radiation mode-based personal audio system: Robustness against wall reflection

Confining sounds in the near field of a loudspeaker array is discussed for realizing personal audio systems. Active acoustic power propagates to the far field, whereas reactive acoustic power does not. Therefore, increasing the ratio of the reactive acoustic power to the active acoustic power leads to acoustic confinement in the near field. The reactive-to-active ratio is maximized by optimally driving loudspeakers. The optimal driving signals are derived based on the theory of generalized radiation modes. This method was proposed in earlier studies by the authors. In the literatures, point acoustic sources on an infinite baffle were assumed to be in a free space, and the radiation mode theory was applied to obtain the optimal driving signals. However, in practice, walls may exist nearby the loudspeaker array. Acoustic waves radiating from the loudspeakers are reflected by the walls. Such a wall reflection may degrade the acoustic confinement. In this study, the robustness against a wall reflection is investigated.

Practical Considerations for Implementing Adaptive Acoustic Noise Cancellation in Commercial Earbuds

Active noise cancellation has become a prominent feature in contemporary in-ear personal audio devices. However, due to constraints related to component arrangement, power consumption, and manufacturing costs, most commercial products utilize fixed-type controller systems as the basis for their active noise control algorithms. These systems offer robust performance and a straightforward structure, which is achievable with cost-effective digital signal processors. Nonetheless, a major drawback of fixed-type controllers is their inability to adapt to changes in acoustic transfer paths, such as variations in earpiece fitting conditions. Therefore, adaptive-type active noise control systems that employ adaptive digital filters are considered as the alternative. To address the increasing system complexity, design concepts and implementation strategies are discussed with respect to actual hardware limitations. To illustrate these considerations, a case study showcasing the implementation of a filtered-x least mean square-based active noise control algorithm is presented. A commercial evaluation board accommodating a low-cost, fixed-point digital signal processor is used to simplify operation and provide programming access. The earbuds are obtained from a commercial product designed for noise cancellation. This study underscores the importance of addressing hardware constraints when implementing adaptive active noise cancellation, providing valuable insights for real-world applications.

Improving the acoustic contrast control performance in car cabins

The car cabin is an enclosure where personal audio is very important because different occupants may have individual listening requirements. Potential approaches to improve the acoustic contrast control performance in enclosures are discussed in this paper, including the configuration of loudspeakers and the sound absorption of sidewalls. The effect of the number of loudspeakers on the acoustic contrast control performance is first investigated, and the locations of a fixed number of loudspeakers are then optimized to maximize the acoustic contrast achieved with the system. The sound absorption of sidewalls also has an effect on the acoustic contrast control performance and it is discussed in detail. The simulations are based on the acoustic transfer functions obtained with a finite element model of a car cabin. The findings in this paper may serve as a guide to future designs of personal audio systems in car cabins.

Sound delivery to listening point using tangent line method.

In personal audio systems, sounds should propagate toward the listening point and attenuate beyond the listening point. This study deals with controlling directivity and distance attenuation using loudspeaker arrays. The array signal processing is based on tangent line method (TLM), which can generate acoustic beams following arbitrary convex trajectories. A curvilinear acoustic beam is produced as an envelope of tangent lines, i.e., straight acoustic beams. Specifying the envelope length enables controlling distance attenuation while enhancing directivity. In this study, the TLM for arbitrary circular trajectories is formulated. Optimization algorithm is applied to identify the trajectory maximizing acoustic contrast.

The Relationship Between Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Awareness and the Use of Personal Listening Devices in Makkah Region, Saudi Arabia.

Introduction Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is one of the most common avoidable reasons for hearing impairment worldwide. Work-related, genetic, infectious, and environmental factors all have a part in defining the level of hearing impairment. Nevertheless, the use of personal listening devices (PLDs) is popular nowadays, particularly among younger people. Healthy behaviors are needed to prevent them from developing hearing loss. Our objective is to evaluate the knowledge level of NIHL among the people of Makkah, Saudi Arabia, and understand its association with PLDs. Methods A cross-sectional survey was performed in December 2022 by sending an online survey on various social media applications. An electronic Arabic questionnaire with a total of 37 questions was designed to explore the participants' demographic data, history of hearing loss, risk factors, attitudes, and awareness of NIHL. Results Almost 22% of the study had mild-to-severe hearing impairment. Hearing issues were especially common among male individuals.A higher incidence of hearing impairments was seen in individuals who were utilizing a sound degree of more than 80%. The causes for NIHL comprised exposure to occupational noise, duration of the listening session per day, and the level to which the sound of the television or the broadcasting was raised. Approximately 77% of the participants preferred to reduce the sound of their personal audio devices (PADs) to prevent NIHL. Conclusion According to this study, there is a high prevalence of hearing problems in the Saudi population. Most of the respondents understood the risk factors linked to NIHL. There is a need for more NIHL awareness campaigns to educate the Saudi population and reinforce positive, healthy listening habits.

International experience and recommendations on audiological screening of schoolchildren: review.

Permanent childhood hearing loss is crucial for speech development and restricts learning abilities. Universal newborn hearing screening programs are well established to detect congenital hearing loss and address the need of hearing-impaired babies. Progressive or acquired permanent hearing loss can manifest later due to genetic causes, intrauterine or postnatal infections, middle ear diseases and excessive exposure to noise when listening the personal audio devices. The hearing loss prevalence in the population of 9 year-olds three times higher compared with newborns. School hearing screening is a part of hearing across the lifespan conception. The article presents international experience and recommendations for the organization of school hearing screening programs. A school-entry hearing test is mandatory, other grades might be screened also. The basic method is pure tone audiometry at frequencies of 500, 1 000, 2 000, 4 000 Hz at 20 dB. Otoscopy and tympanometry can be performed also, while whisper voice speech test is of low sensitivity. The main hearing screening issue is low follow-up of referrals to ascertain audiological assessment. Modern approaches to the prevention of hearing loss in schoolchildren and management of hearing impairements are described. Planning of hearing screening programs requires sufficient human and logistical resources, monitoring of results and quality improvement, all stakeholders engagement.

Validation of a potential-based active sound control methodology

This paper describes a global active sound control methodology based on difference potentials in a three-dimensional space. The proposed alternative method allows the reduction of a boundary value problem set in a complex domain to a boundary equation. The only input data needed by the methodology are the acoustic quantities at the perimeter of the protected region. By minimizing the number of input data, the characteristics of the method provide a practical and cost-effective control system. Moreover, these quantities may pertain to the overall acoustic field composed of both the unwanted and wanted components. The most distinctive feature of this methodology is its ability to automatically differentiates between the wanted sounds and unwanted noise within targeted domains. The proposed approach requires information of neither the wanted nor unwanted component separately, but the measurements of the total field on the boundaries of the shielded domain only. This capability can be very useful for the applications related to personal audio and building acoustics as it enables protection of the predefined personal space against the noise coming from the outside. In doing so, the controls will not interfere with the detectors' recognition of the wanted sound or communication among speakers in the room.

Prevalence and Pattern of Hearing Loss among Young Adults in Tertiary Institutions with Habitual Headphone/Earphone Usage in Kaduna Metropolis.

World Health Organisation estimates that 1.1 billion young people worldwide could be at risk of hearing loss due to unsafe listening practises and nearly half of the teenagers and young adults are exposed to unsafe levels of sound from the use of personal audio devices. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and pattern of hearing loss among students with habitual use of headphone/earphone in tertiary institutions in Kaduna. This was a prospective cross-sectional study of young adults with prolonged headphone/earphone usage in Kaduna and a group of nonheadphone/earphone users matched for age and sex as controls. Ethical approvals were obtained from relevant bodies and informed consent was also obtained from all participants. Data were obtained by clinical interview and audiometric evaluation of the participants and the data obtained were descriptively analysed using SPSS version 20.0. Frequency tables were generated and chi-square test and Student's t test were used to test for a possible association of variables. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05. Two hundred and seventy-two prolonged headphone/earphone users with same number of controls participated in this study. The mean age for subjects and controls was 22.6 ± 3.4 and 23.2 ± 4.2, respectively. Using the better hearing ear, 48 and 20 of the subjects and controls, respectively, had hearing loss, giving a prevalence of 17.6% and 7.4% among the subjects and controls, respectively. Of the 48 subjects with hearing loss, 89.6% had a mild hearing loss. Majority, 91.7% had sensorineural hearing loss and the hearing loss was bilateral in all the participants (both subjects and controls). High frequencies were the most affected (64.6%). This study revealed that hearing impairment was more common among prolonged headphone/earphone users. In the majority of the prolonged headphone/earphone users, the hearing impairment was bilateral, mild, sensorineural, and mostly affects higher frequencies.

A Smartphone-Based Assessment of Hearing Impairment among Students of a Medical College, Delhi, India- A Cross-Sectional Study.

The burden of hearing impairment in India is substantially high, largely preventable, and avoidable. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of hearing impairment using a smartphone-based tool among medical students and to study the factors associated, including personal audio device usage in a medical college hospital in Delhi, India. We conducted a cross-sectional study among undergraduate medical students. The study participants were enrolled via. Stratified random sampling. We assessed hearing impairment via-HearWHO application with scores ranging from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 100 with categorization into i) above 75 ii) 50-75 iii) below 50. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. A total of 96 study participants were included, with the mean age of study participants as 20.3±1.4 years. On assessment with HearWHO, 36 (37.5%) were in the category of score above 75, 51 (53.1%) in score category 50-75, and 9 (9.4%) in score below 50. The overall mean score of the hearing assessment was 68.9±13.4 (Range: 12 to 94). Among the earphone device users, 27.1% do not comply with volume alerts on user devices. Among the study population, 9.4% of the study participants were likely to be having hearing loss and 53.1% should be screened regularly for hearing impairment. Addressing hearing loss remains crucial among the young population, especially the medical professionals, which is feasible and imperative in the current scenario.

Radiation modes and loudspeaker arrays for close-listening: Experimental verification

In personal audio systems, the loudspeaker array for enhancing the near field is designed based on the theory of generalized radiation modes. These modes are formulated as a generalized eigenvalue problem associated with acoustic transfer functions on the surface of the loudspeaker array. The eigenvectors, i.e., the modal shapes, represent combinations of the amplitude and polarity of individual loudspeakers. The eigenvalues indicate the reactive-to-active ratio of the acoustic power generated by the loudspeaker array. Hence, the loudspeaker array is designed according to the eigenvector with the largest eigenvalue to maximize the reactive-to-active ratio. In this study, a planar array consisting of nine loudspeakers is constructed, and the acoustic radiation characteristics are experimentally investigated.

School hearing screening: international experience and recommendations

Permanent childhood hearing loss is crucial for speech development and restricts learning abilities. Universal newborn hearing screening programs are well established to detect congenital hearing loss and address the need of hearing-impaired babies. Progressive or acquired permanent hearing loss can manifest later due to genetic causes, intrauterine or postnatal infections, middle ear diseases and excessive exposure to noise when listening the personal audio devices. The hearing loss prevalence in the population of 9 year-olds three times higher compared with newborns. School hearing screening is a part of hearing across the lifespan conception. The article presents international experience and recommendations for the organization of school hearing screening programs. A school-entry hearing test is mandatory, other grades might be screened also. The basic method is pure tone audiometry at frequencies of 500, 1 000, 2 000, 4 000 Hz at 20 dB. Otoscopy and tympanometry can be performed also, while whisper voice speech test is of low sensitivity. The main hearing screening issue is low follow-up of referrals to ascertain audiological assessment. Modern approaches to the prevention of hearing loss in schoolchildren and management of hearing impairements are described. Planning of hearing screening programs requires sufficient human and logistical resources, monitoring of results and quality improvement, all stakeholders engagement.

A Review of Sound Field Control

Sound field control (SFC) technology enables the active management of audio delivered within an acoustical environment. It includes three research directions: sound field reproduction, personal audio systems, and active noise control. Sound field reproduction uses loudspeaker arrays to replicate a sound field in a target region; personal audio systems extend sound field reproduction over multiple regions so that different listeners can hear personalized audio in a shared space; and active noise control aims to cancel the original sound field in the target area by generating a secondary sound field. In this paper, we briefly review the advances of the three different types of techniques with a discussion of their algorithms and applications.

The engagement of students when learning to use a personal audio classifier to control robot cars in a computational thinking board game

This research explored the creative thinking, learning achievement, and engagement of students when they integrated the application of the personal audio classifier (PAC) into the competition of a computational thinking (CT) board game (i.e., the experimental group), or did not integrate it into the competition but only collaborated with peers to test the function of the program which they had developed (i.e., the control group). The students had experienced popular speech recognition usage in their daily life, such as Siri and Google Assistant; therefore, this study developed instructional material for university freshmen to learn to develop their own artificial intelligence (AI) application (app) on a smart phone with PAC in MIT App Inventor. The PAC platform and the learning material cultivated students to train their own voice classification model, which is a form of supervised machine learning in the AI domain. The results showed that both groups, who had successfully trained computers to distinguish received voice commands with PAC receiving the human voice spectrogram via the cloud platform developed by MIT, made significant progress in their learning effectiveness in AI education. When the students employed the AI app on smartphones in the CT board game, the students’ voice commands could be classified, and then the corresponding command could be executed through the program to control the action of the robot car on the map, regardless of whether they were competing or not. This study not only successfully provided the students with simple AI learning material, but also cultivated their creative thinking, as identified in the survey of the computational thinking self-efficacy scale. During the process of completing a mobile phone application with AI, students should know and use the function of voice classification to achieve goals and expand their cognition of AI applications. This study concluded that the AI learning material for general students rather than students in the department of computer science facilitated the students’ engagement.

Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Hearing Damage Among Adults Using Headphones via Mobile Applications.

BackgroundExposure to recreational noise is an emerging public health problem leading to hearing loss. Young people often spend their leisure and relaxation time listening to unsafe levels of music on their personal audio systems. This study aimed to study hearing impairment among young adults due to exposure to various audio gadgets.MethodologyThis cross-sectional study was conducted among 241 patients and healthcare workers aged 20-40 years. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire including the history and patterns of usage of headphones. A mobile application-based hearing test, a validated Smartphone hearing screening technology, by the World Health Organization (hearWHO) was used to check hearing.ResultsOf the 241 adult participants (aged 20 to 40 years), 188 (78%) were males and 53 (22%) were females. The mean hearWHO score was 46.02 ± 9.854, ranging from 21 to 85. The mean hearWHO score for headphone usage with a music system of 50.45 ± 12.32 (p = 0.023) and television of 44.13 ± 8.595 (p = 0.015) was statistically significant. The mean hearWHO score for daily headphone users was 45.93 ± 9.67, for users using daily for more than two hours was 46.59 ± 10.34, for those using headphones for leisure was 47.51 ± 7.74, and for usage music/gaming was 48.71 ± 12.57. Subclinical hearing loss was seen in 201 (83.4%) headphone users. A higher proportion of subclinical hearing loss (74.1%) was noted among participants who used headphones for multiple reasons such as leisure, education, service, music, and gaming.ConclusionsIn this study, a high proportion of headphone users were found to have subclinical hearing loss. This study generated imperative facts for people and emphasize that they look after their hearing. This study introduces the applicability of new technology in an Indian setting where hearing healthcare is facing challenges.

Patterns of Using Personal Audio Devices and Associated Health Risks in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia

Hearing loss is the world's fourth leading cause of disability. A limited number of studies in Saudi Arabia assess knowledge of personal audio device use and associated health risks among the general population, particularly on the regional level. Moreover, no study was performed in the Eastern Province about this problem. Thus, this study aimed to measure the pattern of the Use of earphones and Personal Audio Devices (PAD) and assess usage habits, listening beliefs, and knowledge of safe use of a sample of adults in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Data were derived in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia and included 483 participants; 33.7% belonged to the age group of 18-25 years old. Data were collected by an online self-administered questionnaire and analyzed with descriptive statistics, a c2 test, a Manne Whitney U test, and hierarchical multiple logistic regression. The assessment of the pattern of PAD usage showed that 53.4% of the participants reported that they had been using it for more than 5 years, and 43.1% used it more than 4 days a week. The assessment of perceptions related to continuous PAD usage showed that 61.7% believed its usage would lead to hearing loss, 79.7% thought it would cause ringing in the ear, 43.1% believed it would cause insomnia, and the majority (90.5%) believed it would cause headache. The knowledge level assessment for PAD use showed that more than half of participants (51.3%) had poor knowledge related to personal audio devices use. Half of the study's participants were unaware of the health risks associated with PAD use. Health officials should use more effective health education strategies to increase public and caregiver understanding of the many aspects of PAD usage.

Personal Audio Systems Unsafe At Any Sound

Personal Audio Systems Unsafe At Any Sound

Too Loud: Noise Exposure in Everyday Life is Causing Hearing Loss

Too Loud: Noise Exposure in Everyday Life is Causing Hearing Loss

Controlling a distance from linear loudspeaker arrays to a listening point by using tangent line method.

A technique for confining the acoustic fields near loudspeaker arrays is proposed for personal audio systems. The proposed technique is based on tangent line method (TLM), which enables the production of circular acoustic beams. The produced beams are focused at a point designated as the listening point. Performance of the TLM-based method and acoustic contrast control (ACC) is compared. In terms of the acoustic contrast and array effort, the TLM-based method is not superior to the ACC but is comparable with the ACC under certain conditions. The advantage of the TLM-based method is the simplicity in signal processing.

Determinan Tingkat Pengetahuan Tentang Risiko Pemakaian Headset Dengan Sikap Penggunaan Headset Pada Mahasiswa

Headset refers to a pair of small loudspeakers that are worn on or around the head above the user's ear. World Health Organization (WHO) stated in 2019 that nearly 50% or 1.1 billion adolescents and young adults (12 to 35 years old) are at risk of hearing loss due to loud and long exposure to sound, including music they listen to through personal audio devices and the 2018 WHO projection shows that if no action is taken, there will be 630 million people living with hearing loss by 2030 and this number will continue to grow or 1 in 10 will experience hearing loss. The objective of this research is to determine a correlation between the students understanding of the headset usage risk and their attitudes of using headset at semester IV nursing students of STIKes Widya Dharma Husada Tangerang. The result of this research based on the data collected from the students showed that 21 students with well understanding of the headset usage risk have shown positive attitudes (32.3%). Meanwhile, 44 (67,7%) students with well understanding of the headset usage risk have shown negative attitudes. The result of the statistical calculation found that (p-value=0,421, α: 0,05). Therefore, it can conclude that there is no correlation between the students understanding of the headset usage risk and their attitudes of using headset. The suggestion based on this research is students should contribute by raising awareness about hearing loss and how to prevent it.