Perpetuate Gender Inequality Research Articles

Academy of Management: Hidden Inequality

We look at two subtle, even invisible, factors where the Academy of Management (AOM) may unintentionally, inadvertently, even unwillingly, perpetuate gender inequality. We look at publication autho...

Empowerment of Zimbabwean Women through Entrepreneurship an Economic and Social Perspective

<div><p><em>The objectives of the study were to<ins cite="mailto:usr" datetime="2017-03-14T09:40"> </ins>identify socio-economic characteristics of female entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe and to ascertain the relationship between women empowerment in entrepreneurship and economic/social development. The research looked at economic and social independent variables that affect women empowerment in entrepreneurship. Literature covered but not limited to, power in households, decision making, ownership of property, access to capital, networking and freedom of movement. This study adopted a mixed research methodology that combined the positivism and the interpretivism paradigms. With regard to this study, the target population was the female entrepreneurs in Harare, Zimbabwe. </em><em>Non-probability was chosen as the sampling technique for this study because it is quicker, easier and cheaper. Convenience and judgmental sampling techniques shall were employed. The questionnaire was used to collect primary data for this study.</em><em>The study revealed that married female entrepreneurs continue to be absent from the household decision-making that shapes the allocation of the economic and financial resources, which further perpetuates gender inequality. The study also confirmed that education and training as well as previous work experience are important success characteristics for empowerment, required by emerging female entrepreneurs as they start and grow their business. The study also confirmed that the lack of access to capital exacerbated by lack of collateral and high interest rates is one of the major deterrents for empowering women through entrepreneurship. Recommendations include coalition among female entrepreneurs, mentoring schemes and changing entrenched patriarchal cultural norms.</em></p></div>

Who is a Real Man? The Gender of Trumpism

The rise of Trumpism exemplifies a contest over masculinity, over who qualifies as a “real man.” This contest being waged not only by some obvious actors – President Trump, his supporters and representatives; it is a contest also waged by those who oppose the current administration and are perhaps actively working against the perpetuation of gender inequality. The themes deployed by Trumpists and anti-Trumpists alike address a core component of masculinity in the global west – dominance. Through sexualized processes of confirmation and repudiation multiple actors in this political and social moment draw on and deploy understandings of normative masculinity as dominance – dominance over women and dominance over other, less masculine, men. Both the Trumpist and anti-Trumpist movements exemplify similar discourses of masculinized dominance in which social actors claim masculinity through discourses and symbols of “compulsive heterosexuality” and divest others of it through the emasculating practices of a “fag discourse.” The story of Trumpism and movements against it is an example of the tenacity of inequality in gendered discourses.

Pursuing Quality: How Search Costs and Uncertainty Magnify Gender-based Double Standards in a Multistage Evaluation Process

Despite lab-based evidence supporting the argument that double standards—by which one group is unfairly held to stricter standards than another—explain observed gender differences in evaluations, it remains unclear whether double standards also affect evaluations in organization and market contexts, where competitive pressures create a disincentive to discriminate. Using data from a field study of investment professionals sharing recommendations on an online platform, and drawing on status theory, we identify the conditions under which double standards in multistage evaluations contribute to unequal outcomes for men and women. We find that double standards disadvantaging women are most likely when evaluators face heightened search costs related to the number of candidates being compared or higher levels of uncertainty stemming from variation in the amount of pertinent information available. We rule out that systematic gender differences in the actions or characteristics of the investment professionals being evaluated are driving these results. By more carefully isolating the role of this status-based mechanism of discrimination for perpetuating gender inequality, this study identifies not only whether but also the conditions under which gender-based double standards lead to a female disadvantage, even when relevant and objective information about performance is readily available.

‘It’s not right for boys to play with dolls’: young children constructing and policing gender during ‘free play’ in a South African classroom

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the ways in which five- to seven-year-old primary school children in a Black/African township in South Africa construct and experience ‘free play’ in the classroom. Findings highlight the gendered manner in which play is constructed and constantly policed by these young children during ‘free play’. By foregrounding the young children’s gendered constructions and experiences of ‘free play’, the paper challenges the common sense teacher perceptions and constructions of children’s play that suggest children have ‘free choice’. The paper reveals that play is far from a ‘free’ activity as it is heavily constrained by specific contextual gender norms and expectations which limit possibilities by reproducing polarised versions of gender and perpetuate gender inequalities. Implications focus on the ways in which teachers can work with children to challenge the boundaries of gender during ‘free play’.

The Romantic Ideal of Men and Women Involved in the Relationship of Friends with Benefits

Abstract This study provides a descriptive analysis of some beliefs or myths of romantic love that maintain individuals involved in the sexual relationship called friends with benefits (FWB). These beliefs generate dissatisfaction in the couple, perpetuate gender inequalities and are in the genesis and maintenance of gender violence. The myths under study have been jealousy, exclusivity, fidelity, true love, the sudden onset of love, powerful love, and binomial sex-love. The sample was made up of 119 adults. An online questionnaire validated in our context by judges has been used as a tool for data collection. Participants were asked to indicate whether or not they identified with a particular myth of romantic love. The results indicate that most of these beliefs, though weakened, remain despite the pragmatic, superficial and liberal nature of these relationships. Some gender stereotypes persist, men are still heavily biased by tilting sex, while women remain significantly claiming the exclusivity of the relationship. In conclusion, friends with benefits do not get rid of a romantic imaginary that generates emotional and sexual inequalities between men and women and is the source of problems in the couple.

Women in the Shark Tank: Entrepreneurship and Feminism in a Neoliberal Age

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction I. Defeating Gender Inequality A. Post-Feminism B. Neoliberal Feminism II. Perpetuating Gender Inequality A. Underrepresentation and Underinvestment B. Sexism C. Second Class (Again) III. Legal Feminism in Entrepreneurial Times A. Harm to Female Entrepreneurs B. Harm to Working Women C. Harm to AH Women and to Feminist Project Conclusion INTRODUCTION Shark Tank is American version of a reality television format featuring entrepreneurs pitching their business ideas in orderto secure investment from a panel of venture capitalists. (1) Every episode of show consists of several pitches. In each pitch, an entrepreneur or a team of entrepreneurs (pitchers) presents an innovative business, seeking investment by one or more investors (sharks) out of a panel of five, in exchange for equity in presented business. All sharks are investing their own money, and successful pitches lead to deals that bring entrepreneurs not only capital, but also help of investing shark(s) with business connections and mentorship. Currently on its seventh season, show enjoys remarkable popularity. It has millions of viewers, (2) and in both 2014 and 2015 it won Emmy Award for Outstanding Structured Reality Program. Numerous avid fans who not only follow show but also write about it in a variety of mediums, including social media, further enhance its impact. (3) My sons are devoted viewers of Shark Tank. Since spending time with them is one of my biggest pleasures, I have joined ride. However, being a female law professor who teaches and writes about contracts and business associations for a living, what started as a family pastime has presented me with an intellectual puzzle that eventually became a scholarly endeavor. 1 found myself intrigued by show's idealization of entrepreneurship and perplexed with regard to role of women in this ideally portrayed world. In this Article, I treat episodes of Shark Tank as a social lab that produces an important cultural discourse. Of utmost importance to way I use show is fact that Shark Tank's makers have made clear that their aspiration is to promote idea of entrepreneurship by influencing culture surrounding it. As show's website announces: the critically-acclaimed reality show that has reinvigorated entrepreneurship in America, has also become a culturally defining series. (4) These deliberate efforts to influence culture combined with immense actual impact of Shark Tank allow a rare glimpse into construction of myth of entrepreneurship and myth's interplay with reality. The intentional idealization of entrepreneurship via medium of a television show and remarkable concrete success of Shark Tank can both be better understood, I argue, as part of a broader process: dissemination of neoliberalism. The goals of such a dissemination process go far beyond our economic world and belief in market economy. Rather, as Margaret Thatcher once said: [economics are method ... but object is to change soul. (5) But how can such changing of souls be achieved? As Wendy Brown has argued, neoliberal project utilizes many mediums through which it disseminates its logic beyond economy; (6) and, as I will argue next, Shark Tank is one such medium. With its focus on entrepreneurship, which is a key component of neoliberalism, show exposes masses of people to entrepreneurial logic in a simplified and enjoyable format. It is thus valuable to recognize that in doing so, Shark Tank operates as a mechanism through which neoliberalism gains access to people's souls and becomes common sense, thereby achieving hegemony. The effectiveness of mechanism is proved by Shark Tank's exceptional popularity, which demonstrates that neoliberal project has gone so deep that it has changed even way we are being entertained. …

EVALUATING BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM FROM A GENDER PERSPECTIVE: ADDRESSING GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS

Addressing gender-equality issues in education can foster enormous change in children’s lives. However, most textbooks in Albanian schools include gender stereotypes, which perpetuate gender inequality and unequal roles for men and women, both in public and private spheres. This research aims to identify and evaluate trends of gender stereotypes in textbooks, as well as the need for gender mainstreaming in basic education curriculum. The methodology is based on a desk review of textbooks from a gender perspective. The curriculum evaluation follows the context, input, process, and product (CIPP) model of evaluation, which mainly aims to assess the extent to which a certain education reform has generated positive change in schools.

Reactions to anti-male sexism claims: The moderating roles of status-legitimizing belief endorsement and group identification

Men increasingly identify as victims of gender discrimination, but it is unclear how people react to men who claim to be victims of gender bias. We examined how status-legitimizing belief endorsement (SLBs) and gender identification (GID) moderated men and women’s reactions to a man who claimed to have lost a promotion because of anti-male sexism or another cause. Consistent with theory that claiming bias against high-status groups reinforces the status hierarchy, SLB endorsement was associated with more positive reactions toward an anti-male bias claimant for both men and women. Group identification, in contrast, affects group-specific concerns and thus differentially predicted male and female participants’ reactions. Men evaluated the claimant more positively the more strongly they identified with their gender. The more women identified with their gender, the more negatively they evaluated the male claimant. We also demonstrated that SLBs and GID moderated the extent to which the claimant was perceived as sexist. We discuss how these reactions may perpetuate gender inequality.

Understanding the Conditions of Bias: Essays on Gender Differences in Evaluation Outcomes Across Three Empirical Contexts - Dissertation Executive Summary

Whereas existing research has importantly documented that gender differences in evaluation outcomes exist, this dissertation shifts the focus to uncovering the conditions under which this is the case as well as the underlying mechanisms driving these observed gender differences. Specifically, the three papers in this dissertation contribute to our understanding of the evaluative mechanisms perpetuating gender inequality by answering the following overarching research question: Under what conditions and how do evaluation processes lead to different outcomes for comparable men and women, particularly when more relevant indicators of quality are available to evaluators?

Understanding Factors that Shape Gender Attitudes in Early Adolescence Globally: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review.

BackgroundEarly adolescence (ages 10–14) is a period of increased expectations for boys and girls to adhere to socially constructed and often stereotypical norms that perpetuate gender inequalities. The endorsement of such gender norms is closely linked to poor adolescent sexual and reproductive and other health-related outcomes yet little is known about the factors that influence young adolescents’ personal gender attitudes.ObjectivesTo explore factors that shape gender attitudes in early adolescence across different cultural settings globally.MethodsA mixed-methods systematic review was conducted of the peer-reviewed literature in 12 databases from 1984–2014. Four reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of articles and reviewed full text articles in duplicate. Data extraction and quality assessments were conducted using standardized templates by study design. Thematic analysis was used to synthesize quantitative and qualitative data organized by the social-ecological framework (individual, interpersonal and community/societal-level factors influencing gender attitudes).ResultsEighty-two studies (46 quantitative, 31 qualitative, 5 mixed-methods) spanning 29 countries were included. Ninety percent of studies were from North America or Western Europe. The review findings indicate that young adolescents, across cultural settings, commonly express stereotypical or inequitable gender attitudes, and such attitudes appear to vary by individual sociodemographic characteristics (sex, race/ethnicity and immigration, social class, and age). Findings highlight that interpersonal influences (family and peers) are central influences on young adolescents’ construction of gender attitudes, and these gender socialization processes differ for boys and girls. The role of community factors (e.g. media) is less clear though there is some evidence that schools may reinforce stereotypical gender attitudes among young adolescents.ConclusionsThe findings from this review suggest that young adolescents in different cultural settings commonly endorse norms that perpetuate gender inequalities, and that parents and peers are especially central in shaping such attitudes. Programs to promote equitable gender attitudes thus need to move beyond a focus on individuals to target their interpersonal relationships and wider social environments. Such programs need to start early and be tailored to the unique needs of sub-populations of boys and girls. Longitudinal studies, particularly from low-and middle-income countries, are needed to better understand how gender attitudes unfold in adolescence and to identify the key points for intervention.

Transformative Empowerment in the Lagos State Civil Service: A Gender Policy Discourse

Transformation means positive change to new values and direction. This research is concerned with the relationship between empowerment processes that are transformatory and gender equality in the workplace. Its scope includes integrating a transformatory view into women’s and men’s consciousness and autonomy over their career, education and health. This research adopted a case-study approach by using the Ministries of Education, Health, Establishment, Training and Pensions and the Civil Service Commission in Lagos State, employing a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods as its empirical research methodology. The field work was carried out in Lagos State in the months of June and July, 2014 while the interview was in July and August, 2014. This study demonstrated that gender-blind policies disempower women and perpetuate gender inequalities in the Lagos State Civil Service. Further, it shows that the manifestation of transformatory empowerment is jeopardised by women and men's compliance with the existing expectations and inaction to bring about changes in policies and practices that are detrimental to the attainment of gender equality in the work place.

Gender Inequality Across the Academic Life Course

AbstractRecent decades have witnessed increasing scholarly and public attention to the status of women in academia. Although women are now the majority of degree recipients and their share of initial academic appointments approximates their representation among degree recipients, substantial gender inequality persists. In this article, we review existing research on this topic, focusing on how gender inequality manifests and unfolds throughout the academic career life course, from graduate school experiences, through initial academic appointments, into the associate professor years, and, finally, to women's experiences as full professors and administrators. Throughout, we emphasize how institutionalized policies and subtle biases, rather than overt discrimination, perpetuate gender inequality. We conclude with suggested areas for future research.

Is there a right time for gender-just peace? Feminist anti-war organising revisited

ABSTRACTThis paper addresses the question of totalising gender-power relations that have led to and shaped the wars of the 1990s in Yugoslavia and the emerging ethno-national states on the ‘periphery’ of Europe. I argue that the same type of gender-power relations continue to dominate the region, notably Serbia, and to perpetuate gender inequalities and gender-based violence (GBV) in its many everyday and structural forms, causing profound levels of human insecurity. This analysis aims to set in motion a debate around how to tackle these continuing gender inequalities and GBV in post-war societies. In so doing, I propose a shift from focusing on the hierarchy of victimisation that has characterised much of the feminist analyses, activism, and scholarly work in relation to these (and other) conflicts, to a relational understanding of the gendered processes of victimisation in war and peace, that is – of both women and men. Such an approach holds a potential to undermine the power systems that engender these varied types of victimisation by ultimately reshaping the notions of masculinity and femininity, which are central to the gender-power systems that generate gender-unjust peace.

The Influence of Traditional Male Initiation (Lebollo) on School Discipline: Educators’ Perspectives

ABSTRACTThis study explores the influence of traditional male initiation on school discipline. Eight educators teaching in township schools in Bloemfontein, South Africa, were purposefully selected to take part in a focus-group interview. The results from a content analysis indicate that initiates may exacerbate disciplinary problems at schools and that certain types of misbehavior may be attributed to initiation schools. The study found that initiation schools might perpetuate gender inequalities, patriarchy, gangsterism, and criminality. Recommendations on how to deal with disciplinary problems arising from initiates’ behavior are made.

Gender and the Ideal Worker Image: Impacts on Worker Outcomes and Organizational Life

The cultural schema of the ideal worker as a man has been identified as a crucial element in the perpetuation of gender inequality in the workplace. Research has long-noted that the navigation of the ideal worker image - as one who is fully committed to and invested in organizational life above all else - is particularly problematic for women; however, recent research recognizes that men, too, are restricted by expectations of the ideal worker. Thus, the ideal worker image is far- reaching and deeply entrenched in organizational life, and offers important explanatory power for understanding gender dynamics in the workplace. As such, this symposium will examine how ideal worker images affect a range of different outcomes for workers, such as performance, bias, and individual engagement/satisfaction. We include three presentations that explore the ideal worker image in a variety of novel contexts, and the impact of the image for individuals and organizations. Discussants will provide both theoretical and pr...

Extreme work, gendered work? How extreme jobs and the discourse of ‘personal choice’ perpetuate gender inequality

This review sets extreme jobs in the context of the institutional, occupational, organizational and individual drivers of long hours and work intensification and identifies the consequences for gender equality, human sustainability and long-term productivity. We suggest that extreme jobs derive not from the ‘nature’ of managerial and professional work but from working practices and occupational discourses which have developed to suit the gendered norms of ‘ideal workers’. These practices and discourses encourage long hours rather than working-hours choices. Extreme jobs extend the gendered division of labour and increase the separation of work and non-work spheres; they are a structure of gender inequality. This review suggests that future research should seek to identify alternative but business-neutral working practices which contest the extreme ‘nature’ of managerial and professional work, measure the social value of non-work activities and deepen our understanding of the personal and social significance of non-work identities other than motherhood, and disentangle situational motivation, work passion and workaholism as motives for devoting long hours to work so that impacts on well-being and productivity can be more clearly understood.

Eldercare, immigration, and health care in Italy: How the Italian state creates and mitigates inequality

AbstractThis article considers the role of the Italian state as both a source of inequality and an institution that mitigates inequality. Fieldwork completed in Genoa in 2010 focused on the intersection of immigration policies, care work needs, and the informal economy revealed in the lives of immigrant in‐home care workers. Genoa, the largest city in the region of Liguria, is the “oldest” city in Europe, in that 33 percent of the population is now older than 60 years of age. In Esping‐Andersen's typology, Italy's Mediterranean‐familialist‐style welfare regime is characterized by a high dependence on family members to provide care, few state‐supported services for elders, and a shortage of policies that reconcile care and work. This combination places the burden of care for family elders on female relatives, thus perpetuating gender inequalities. In Italy, the relatives of the elder needing care often shift their burden onto low‐wage immigrant laborers. In households employing care workers in Genoa, examining how Italian state policies regarding eldercare maintain ethnic, class, and gender inequalities illustrates how state forces influence private realities. In addition, the well‐established practice of regional autonomy has transformed the Italian national health care system, as it is manifest in the region of Liguria, into a sociocultural institution that mitigates inequality in health care access as it serves both citizens and immigrants. However, this institution also supports unequal working conditions in that it supports informal economic activity by maintaining the health of the low‐wage, immigrant workforce critical to the well‐being of the elders of this region.

ECONOMIC LIBERALIZATION AND GENDER INEQUALITY IN THE LABOR MARKET: A THEORETICAL APPROACH

The paper seeks to provide a theoretical foundation to the diverse empirical findings with regard to the role of liberalization in perpetuating gender inequality in the labor market. It studies the role of female labor supply decisions on gender wage inequality by considering the interrelation between liberalized policies, gender wage inequality, and female labor force participation. A three–sector Harris‐Todaro general equilibrium model has been developed to examine the effects of liberalized trade, investment, and labor market policies on the gender wage gap and female labor force participation. There are two underlying assumptions: first, women are paid less because they are employed in the informal sectors; even within the informal sector, they are engaged in particularly low paying activities because of gender segregation. Second, female labor supply decisions or female labor force participation is endogenous, and depends on male and female wages, and the unemployment of male workers. The comparative static analysis indicates that while a reduction in import tariff may narrow the gender wage gap and raise female workforce participation, foreign capital inflow and labor market deregulation may aggravate gender wage inequality and lower female labor force participation.

Commentary: Promoting healthy adolescent development through comprehensive sexuality education

The ICPD Programme of Action and many intergovernmental agreements since have agreed that all adolescents, in and out of school, have a right to and must have access to comprehensive sexuality education (CSE). This CSE must include not only human biology and HIV, but must also address puberty, sexuality, where and how to access sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services, including referral when needed, and skills development for relationships based on gender equality, respect for human rights and for diversity, and the use of critical thinking (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2009). Promising interventions exist in a number of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, across Latin America, in Pakistan and in some states of India. These programmes are provided to both boys and girls, either separately or together, recognising that fundamental improvements in the lives of girls and young women require changes in the attitudes and behaviours of boys and men that perpetuate gender inequality and power imbalances. Although ‘gold standard’ evaluations of the impacts of such programmes are few, a number of qualitative studies, including the examples below, suggest that interventions delivered according to the UNESCO standards increase awareness and change attitudes on gender equality and power structures, at least in the short run. Regardless of the paucity of impact assessments, every child and adolescent from the earliest possible age has a right to information and education (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1990) about these key aspects of their lives. Examples of promising programmes include: School-based sexuality education programmes for boys and girls in three cities in Brazil, which, in addition to the sexuality and health education curriculum, are strongly linked to health centres and specially trained health care providers, as well as outlets for creative and cultural activities. These programmes have shown improvements in awareness of SRH, attitudes towards gender roles and citizenship, as well as increases in reported contraceptive use (Diaz et al., 2005). The ‘Family Life and HIV Education’ curriculum delivered to girls and boys in junior secondary high schools in Lagos State, Nigeria, includes information on human sexual development and sexual health, skills for negotiating personal and intimate relationships, and promotion of gender equitable attitudes, although some locally contentious topics such as condoms and masturbation are not included. Compared to those with no exposure, adolescents who underwent the programme for three years showed greater awareness of SRH, expression of gender equitable attitudes, confidence about saying no to pressures to have sex, and among boys, a commitment not to pressure girls to engage in sex (Action Health Incorporated, 2010). The Girl Power Initiative in four sites in southeast Nigeria has invested in girls ages 10–18, aiming to build their sense of confidence and self-esteem, agency and negotiating skills in relationships with friends, parents and others, and their knowledge about SRH and rights (Madunagu, 2003). Girls who complete the programme report new and increased ability to relate to parents, teachers and peers, and to avoid risky situations. Many have completed secondary school and avoided harmful practices such as child marriage and female genital mutilation. Programme H, in several Latin America and Caribbean settings with adaptations in India and elsewhere, have indicated that peer group work on self-care, and on prevention of STIs as well as pregnancy, helps adolescent boys to adopt gender equitable norms and to reduce risk behaviours and perpetration of violence against women (Barker, Ricardo, & Nascimento, 2007; Verma et al., 2008). Such programmes can also be cost-effective platforms for information and skills building in order to prevent non-communicable disease risk factors (such as tobacco and other substance use, being overweight and experiencing a lack of physical exercise); to encourage avoidance of other risky behaviours; and to refer young people to health care, including SRH services and mental health support.