Perovskite Solar Modules Research Articles

Advancements in Manufacturing of High-Performance Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules Using Printing Technologies

Perovskite photovoltaic technology carries immense opportunity for the solar industries because of its remarkable efficiency and prospect for cost-effective production. However, the successful deployment of perovskite solar modules (PSMs) in the solar market necessitates tackling stability-based obstacles, scalability, and environmental considerations. This paper unveils a comprehensive examination of the cutting-edge advancements in the manufacturing of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and modules, with an emphasis on high-speed, large-area printing. The paper underscores the substantial progress achieved in printed PSCs and PSMs, demonstrating promising electrical performance and long-term device durability. This review paper categorizes printing techniques compatible with large-area high-speed manufacturing into three distinct families: blade coating, slot die coating, and screen printing, as these common printing practices offer precise control, scalability, cost-effectiveness, high resolution, and efficient material usage. Additionally, this paper presents an in-depth investigation and comparison of superior PSCs and PSMs fabricated by printing on power conversion efficiency (PCE), stability, and scalability.

In-situ formation of a new cation renders perovskite solar modules with a record efficiency and long-term stability

In-situ formation of a new cation renders perovskite solar modules with a record efficiency and long-term stability

Visualizing Performances Losses of Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules: From Laboratory to Industrial Scales

AbstractWhile the efficiencies of lab‐sized perovskite solar cells are continuously rising, a variety of challenges have to be overcome to realize remotely similar efficiencies in an industrial context. Any changes in the preparation process, device size, device architecture, and material type are likely to result in efficiency loss. To date, there have been no solutions that can produce large‐area modules with performance comparable to that of laboratory devices. However, depending on the type of deposition process, the dominant loss mechanisms differ significantly, which can guide the further optimization of processes and devices. In this study, a meta‐analysis of state‐of‐the‐art perovskite solar cells and modules with different preparation methods, area sizes, and material compositions, is presented. Moreover, the efficiency losses are divided into five figures of merit and they are visualized to discuss the efficiency‐limiting loss mechanisms that must be overcome for commercialization.

Synergistic Modulation of Orientation and Steric Hindrance Induced by Alkyl Chain Length in Ammonium Salt Passivator Toward High‐performance Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules

AbstractOrganic ammonium salts are extensively utilized for passivating surface defects in perovskite films to mitigate trap‐assisted nonradiative recombination. However, the influence of alkyl chain length on the molecular orientation and spatial steric hindrance of ammonium salt remains underexplored, hindering advancements in more effective passivators. Here, a series of organic ammonium salts is reported with varying alkyl chain lengths to passivate surface defects and optimize band alignment. It is revealed that long alkyl chains promote parallel molecular orientation on the perovskite surface, thereby reinforcing interaction with surface defects, whereas excessive chain length introduces steric hindrance, weakening anion‐perovskite interactions. Nonylammonium acetate (NAAc) with optimal chain length achieves the ideal balance between chemical interactions, resulting in superior passivation. Through NAAc passivation, high‐performance inverted perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and modules are achieved, with power conversion efficiencies (PCE) of 25.79% (certified 25.12%) and 19.62%, respectively. This marks a record PCE for inverted PSCs utilizing vacuum flash technology in ambient conditions. Additionally, the NAAc‐passivated devices retain 91% of their initial PCE after 1200 h of continuous maximum power point operation. This work offers new insights into the interplay between molecular orientation and steric hindrance, advancing the design of high‐performance PSCs.

Enhancing the Efficiency and Stability of Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules through Top Interface Modification with N‐type Semiconductors

The interface modification between perovskite and electron transport layer (ETL) plays a crucial role in achieving high performance inverted perovskite photovoltaics (i‐PPVs). Herein, non‐fullerene acceptors (NFAs), known as Y6‐BO and Y7‐BO, were utilized to modify the perovskite/ETL interface in i‐PPVs. Non‐polar solvent‐soluble NFAs can effectively passivate surface defects without structural damage of the underlying perovskite films. Additionally, the improved PCBM ETL induced by NFAs modification significantly accelerates the electrons extraction. As a result, both Y6‐BO and Y7‐BO exhibit more effective interface modification effects compared to traditional PI molecules. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the inverted perovskite solar cell (i‐PSC) modified with Y7‐BO reaches 25.82%. Moreover, the adoption of non‐polar solvents and the superior semiconductor properties of Y7‐BO molecules also enable perovskite solar modules (i‐PSM) with effective areas of 50 cm2, 400 cm2, and 1160 cm2 to achieve record efficiencies of 23.05%, 22.32%, and 21.1% (certified PCE), respectively, making them the best PCE reported in the literature. Importantly, enhanced interface mechanical strength between the perovskite and PCBM layer results in significantly improved environmental and operational stability of the cells. The cells modified with Y7‐BO maintained 94.4% of the initial efficiency after 1522 hours of maximum power point aging.

Enhancing the Efficiency and Stability of Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules through Top Interface Modification with N-type Semiconductors.

The interface modification between perovskite and electron transport layer (ETL) plays a crucial role in achieving high performance inverted perovskite photovoltaics (i-PPVs). Herein, non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs), known as Y6-BO and Y7-BO, were utilized to modify the perovskite/ETL interface in i-PPVs. Non-polar solvent-soluble NFAs can effectively passivate surface defects without structural damage of the underlying perovskite films. Additionally, the improved PCBM ETL induced by NFAs modification significantly accelerates the electrons extraction. As a result, both Y6-BO and Y7-BO exhibit more effective interface modification effects compared to traditional PI molecules. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the inverted perovskite solar cell (i-PSC) modified with Y7-BO reaches 25.82%. Moreover, the adoption of non-polar solvents and the superior semiconductor properties of Y7-BO molecules also enable perovskite solar modules (i-PSM) with effective areas of 50 cm2, 400 cm2, and 1160 cm2 to achieve record efficiencies of 23.05%, 22.32%, and 21.1% (certified PCE), respectively, making them the best PCE reported in the literature. Importantly, enhanced interface mechanical strength between the perovskite and PCBM layer results in significantly improved environmental and operational stability of the cells. The cells modified with Y7-BO maintained 94.4% of the initial efficiency after 1522 hours of maximum power point aging.

Surface Planarization-Epitaxial Growth Enables Uniform 2D/3D Heterojunctions for Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Modules.

Two-dimensional/three-dimensional (2D/3D) halide perovskite heterojunctions are widely used to improve the efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells. However, interfacial defects between the 2D and 3D perovskites and the poor coverage of the 2D capping layer still hinder long-term stability and homogeneous charge extraction. Herein, a surface planarization strategy on 3D perovskite is developed that enables an epitaxial growth of uniform 2D/3D perovskite heterojunction via a vapor-assisted process. The homogeneous charge extraction and suppression of interfacial nonradiative recombination is achieved by forming a uniform 2D/3D interface. As a result, a stabilized power output efficiency of 25.97% is achieved by using a 3D perovskite composition with a bandgap of 1.55eV. To demonstrate the universality of the strategy applied for different perovskites, the champion device based on a 1.57eV bandgap 3D perovskite results in an efficiency of 25.31% with a record fill factor of 87.6%. Additionally, perovskite solar modules achieve a designated area (24.04 cm2) certified efficiency of 20.75% with a high fill factor of 80.0%. Importantly, the encapsulated uniform 2D/3D modules retain 96.9% of the initial efficiency after 1246h operational tracking under 65 °C (ISOS-L-3 protocol) and 91.1% after 862h under the ISOS-O-1 protocol.

Cation reactivity inhibits perovskite degradation in efficient and stable solar modules.

Perovskite solar modules (PSMs) show outstanding power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), but long-term operational stability remains problematic. We show that incorporating N,N-dimethylmethyleneiminium chloride into the perovskite precursor solution formed dimethylammonium cation and that previously unobserved methyl tetrahydrotriazinium ([MTTZ]+) cation effectively improved perovskite film. The in situ formation of [MTTZ]+ cation increased the formation energy of iodine vacancies and enhanced the migration energy barrier of iodide and cesium ions, which suppressed nonradiative recombination, thermal decomposition, and phase segregation processes. The optimized PSMs achieved a record (certified) PCE of 23.2% with an aperture area of 27.2 cm2, with a stabilized PCE of 23.0%. The encapsulated PSM retained 87.0% of its initial PCE after ~1900 hours of maximum power point tracking at 85°C and 85% relative humidity under 1.0-sun illumination.

Vapor-phase fluoride treatment: A stability breakthrough for perovskite solar modules

Vapor-phase fluoride treatment: A stability breakthrough for perovskite solar modules

Scalable Fabrication of High-Performance Perovskite Solar Cell Modules by Mediated Vapor Deposition.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) can enable renewable electricity generation at low levelized costs, subject to the invention of an economically feasible technology for their large-scale fabrication, like vapor deposition. This approach is effective for the fabrication of small area (<1 cm2) PSCs, but its scale-up to produce high-efficiency larger area modules has been limited by a severe imbalance between the vapor-solid reaction kinetics and the mass-transport of the volatile ammonium salt precursor. In this study, an amidine-based low-dimensional perovskite is introduced as an intermediate of the solid-vapor reaction to help resolve this limitation. This improves reaction pathway produces unique vertically monolithic grains with no detectable horizontal boundaries, which is used to produce 1.0 cm2 PSCs with an efficiency of 22.1%, as well as 12.5 and 48 cm2 modules delivering 21.1% and 20.1% efficiency, respectively. The modules retain ≈85% of their initial performance after 900 h of continuous operation (ISOS-L-1 protocol) and ≈100% after 2800 h of storage in an ambient environment (ISOS-D-1 protocol).

Unveiling the potential of Cs2AgBiBr6 perovskites for next-generation see-through photovoltaics

Lead-free perovskite solar cells are strong contenders in the race for green and sustainable energy. Among these, cesium silver bismuth bromide (Cs2AgBiBr6) stands out, but its potential was hampered by the need for high-temperature processing, hindering its transition to scalable techniques. In this work, we present the feasibility of blade-coating deposition of Cs2AgBiBr6 layer. Thanks to the temperature control of the substrate during the process, we deposited uniform films at precise thickness enabling the fabrication of fully semitransparent devices with power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 3.07 % and 7.7 % under 1 sun and indoor light conditions, respectively. Furthermore, we evaluated important metrics for transparent photovoltaics such as Light Utilization Efficiency (LUE) and Color Rendering Index (CRI) of the devices by varying the Cs2AgBiBr6 thicknesses and the illumination conditions. The results showed LUEs at 1 Sun illumination of 1.1 % (1.5 %) and CRI of 71 (62.5) for 200 nm-thick and 400 nm-thick perovskite films, respectively. Finally, we evaluated the process scalability fabricating 6 cm2-sized semitransparent modules suitable for low-power electronics in Internet of Things field. This study opens the door to the development of non-hazardous, scalable, lead-free perovskite solar cells and modules suitable for integration into our everyday surroundings thanks to their see-through properties.

Control of Methylamine Gas Treatment for Upscaling Perovskite Solar Module

Methylamine (MA0) gas treatment (MATM) is a process that involves the adsorption of MA0 on methylammonium (MA)‐based lead perovskite thin films, forming an adsorption intermediate, which appears as a visually transparent liquid. When MA0 is desorbed from this intermediate, recrystallization of the MA‐based perovskite occurs. Due to the highly reversible nature of MATM and its ability to inherently levelize the film surface through liquefaction, MATM is a promising method for fabricating uniform and intact perovskite thin films over large areas, which is crucial for the commercialization of perovskite solar cells. Herein, efforts to control the MATM process are presented, including slowing down the kinetics of MA adsorption by introducing a diluent into the MA stock solution, establishing a monitoring system to investigate the desorption process in detail, and demonstrating the success of MATM in fabricating perovskite solar modules. It is found that MATM not only heals morphological flaws but also promotes (110) orientation crystallinity and reduces trap density in recrystallized MAPbI3 films. Finally, MATM is applied to prepare perovskite minimodules using an in‐house designed MA‐induced liquefaction and recrystallization reactor. The minimodule (5 × 5 cm) fabricated using MATM achieves 18.32% efficiency, significantly surpassing the performance of those fabricated using antisolvent‐treating (7.50%) and vacuum drying (16.09%) methods.

Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules Enabled by Tailoring Additive Distribution According to the Film Growth Dynamics

HighlightsTwo pre-crystallization processes of gas quenching and vacuum quenching lead to different order of crystallization dynamics within the perovskite thin film, resulting in the differences of additive distribution.A tailor designed 1,3-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)thiourea was utilized to improve the buried interface, leading to a certified efficiency of 23.75% for blade-coated perovskite solar cell.The perovskite solar module (aperture area: 60.84 cm2) demonstrates an efficiency of 20.18% with excellent operational stability (maximum power point tracking of T90 > 1000 h).

Enhancing Conductivity of Nickel Oxide to Achieve Scalable Preparation for High-Efficiency Perovskite Solar Modules

NiOx, prepared via the sputtering method, exhibits low conductivity and energy level mismatch with the perovskite layer, thereby limiting further enhancements in the performance of perovskite solar modules (PSMs). Unlike traditional methods that enhance the performance of NiOx through reactive sputtering or directly doping NiOx targets with metal ions, both of which incur high costs and low efficiency, we employ an evaporation method using LiF to achieve efficient and low-cost doping of NiOx. Compared to the pristine NiOx, the incorporation of LiF significantly increases the conductivity of NiOx. Additionally, the incorporation of LiF enhances the quality of the deposited perovskite films, as well as the energy level alignment and symmetry between NiOx and the perovskite, effectively improving the hole extraction and transport capabilities between NiOx and the perovskite. As a result, the PSM (active area of 57.30 cm²) fabricated in air achieves an impressive efficiency of 19.54%. Furthermore, the unencapsulated PSM retains 80% of its initial efficiency after 700 h of continuous illumination, whereas the NiOx-based PSM drops to 80% after only 150 h. This study provides a simple and low-cost method for doping NiOx, which is of great significance for the further industrialization of PSMs.

Resolving Scaling Issues in Self‐Assembled Monolayer‐Based Perovskite Solar Modules via Additive Engineering

Resolving Scaling Issues in Self‐Assembled Monolayer‐Based Perovskite Solar Modules via Additive Engineering

Tailoring Wetting Properties of Organic Hole‐Transport Interlayers for Slot‐Die‐Coated Perovskite Solar Modules

The strategy of incorporating self‐assembled monolayers (SAMs) with anchoring groups is an effective and promising method for interface engineering in perovskite solar cells with metal oxide charge‐transporting layers. However, coating SAM layers in upscaled perovskite solar modules (PSMs) using slot‐die coating is challenging due to the low viscosity and wettability of the solutions. In this study, a triphenylamine‐based polymer poly([{5‐[4‐(diphenylamino)phenyl]‐2‐thienyl}(4‐fluorophenyl)methylene]malononitrile) (pTPA)–TDP, blended with SAM based on 5‐[4‐[4‐(diphenylamino)phenyl]thiophene‐2‐carboxylic acid, is integrated to address these challenges. And, p–i–n‐oriented PSMs on 50 × 50 mm2 substrates (12 sub‐cells) are fabricated with a NiO hole‐transport layer and organic interlayers for surface modification. Wetting angle mapping shows that ununiform regions of the slot‐die‐coated SAM has extreme hydrophobicity, causing absorber thickness fluctuations and macro‐defects at buried interfaces. The blended interlayer at the NiO/perovskite junction homogenizes surface wettability and mitigates lattice strain, enabling the effective use of SAM properties on large surfaces. This improved energy level alignment, enhancing the power conversion efficiency of the modules from 13.98% to 15.83% and stability (ISOS‐L‐2, T80 period) from 500 to 1630 h. In these results, the complex effects of using SAM in slot‐die‐coating technology for large‐scale perovskite photovoltaics are highlighted.

Enhancing precursor stability with suitable additives to enable blade-coating of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites at room temperature for efficient perovskite solar modules

In this study, room temperature blade coating organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite (OIHP) films with the precursors made of adding additives such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) to the volatile solvent of 2-methoxylethanol (2-ME) were explored. Unlike NMP, DMSO and DMF interact with the perovskites to form Lewis adducts, suggesting important factors beyond the Gutmann donor number and dielectric constant, such as molecular structure, influence adduct formation. The OIHP solar cells made of the precursors with optimized amount of DMSO, DMF and NMP showed the efficiency of 16.5 %, 16.1 % and 8.3 %, respectively. After optimizing the blade-coating process for OIHP film formation by using the Taguchi's method, the optimized OIHP solar modules (active area = 25.2 cm2) achieve PCEs of 14.6 % and 14.1 % with the precursor added 20 mol% DMSO and 30 mol% DMF, respectively. Moreover, the precursor added with DMF demonstrates better storage stability than that of DMSO, achieving the best module PCE of 13.4 % fabricated from the 3-day stored DMF-added precursors, while the module fabricated from the DMSO-added precursor shows a PCE of 9.1 %.

Optimization of laser patterning process for eco-friendly tin-halide perovskite solar module – with a nanosecond green laser

The tin-based perovskite solar cells are promising future eco-friendly photovoltaic technology with increasing efficiency, which relies on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) or indium tin oxide (ITO) as a transparent conducting oxide (TCO) for front contact. In the monolithic module fabrication process interconnections are executed by a series of three scribes with two different lasers 1064 nm and 532 nm. This study aims to simplify the interconnection process in tin-based perovskite solar modules by using a single visible laser source to perform all three scribes. The study uses an inverted device structure of Glass/TCO/ Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): Polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS)/Formamidinium-tin-iodide (FASnI3)/C60/Bathocuproine (BCP)/Ag and a 532 nm nanosecond pulsed laser source to pattern the ITO and FTO (P1 scribe), the PEDOT: PSS/FASnI3/C60/BCP stack (P2 scribe), and the PEDOT: PSS/FASnI3/C60/BCP/Ag (P3 scribe). The quality of the P1 scribe is assessed by examining the edges, completeness of film removal, cracking, film delamination, and elemental mapping using a stylus profiler, optical microscope, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The P1 scribe is completely removed with line widths of 70 µm and 110 µm of ITO and FTO, respectively, without damage to the glass substrate. The profiles are steep, and the electrical isolation is greater than 40 MΩ. The same 532 nm laser is used for P2 and P3 scribes. The ablation of PEDOT: PSS during P2 and P3 scribe is studied by Raman spectroscopy. The results show that the use of a single 532 nm laser source can simplify the patterning process of monolithic tin-based perovskite solar modules, and potentially reduce production costs.

Quality Assessment of Perovskite Solar Cells: An Industrial Point of View

The mass production of photovoltaic (PV) devices requires fast and reliable characterization methods and equipment. PV manufacturers produce a complete module roughly every 20 s, and the electrical performance assessment is typically completed in less than 1 s. Times are even more stringent during cell manufacturing. To be competitive in the PV market, perovskite solar cells and modules aim to the same target, i.e., fast and reliable quality assessment. This communication report discusses the limit of characterizing the current perovskite technology. Standard current vs voltage measurements are compared to maximum power point tracking (MPPT), and a fast MPPT procedure is developed to meet the highly demand standard for quality control in the industry of PV production.

Stable and sustainable perovskite solar modules by optimizing blade coating nickel oxide deposition over 15 × 15 cm2 area

Perovskite solar cells have rapidly advanced, achieving over 26% power conversion efficiency on the laboratory scale. However, transitioning to large-scale production remains a challenge due to limitations in conventional fabrication methods like spin coating. Here, we introduce an optimized blade coating process for the scalable fabrication of large-area (15 cm × 15 cm) perovskite solar modules with a nickel oxide hole transport layer, performed in ambient air and utilizing a non-toxic solvent system. Self-assembled monolayers between the nickel oxide and perovskite layer improve the uniformity and morphology of the perovskite film. Perovskite solar modules with a 110 cm2 active area achieve a power conversion efficiency of 12.6%. Moreover, encapsulated modules retained 84% of their initial efficiency after 1,000 hours at 85 °C in air (ISOS-T-1). This study demonstrates progress in the large-scale production of perovskite solar cells that combine efficiency with long-term stability.