Permeability Of Fractured Rocks Research Articles

Three‐dimensional resistor network modeling of the resistivity and permeability of fractured rocks

AbstractThe resistivity and permeability of 3‐D fracture networks have been modeled as the fractures within these networks are incrementally opened. In these models, the ratio of the rock resistivity to that of the fluid is 104, and the rock permeability is 1 × 10−18 m2. The changes in both resistivity and permeability depend on characteristics of the network itself such as fracture density, as well as the aperture distribution within individual fractures. In dense fracture networks where the density constant α is equal to 30, a percolation threshold can be defined in terms of mean fracture aperture, below which both resistivity and permeability are close to their matrix values. At the percolation threshold, a change in mean aperture of 0.02 mm can change the permeability by 4 orders of magnitude and resistivity by a factor of 4. The percolation threshold does not necessarily occur at the same aperture for different flow directions, so fracture networks near their percolation threshold commonly show anisotropy in both resistivity and permeability. Most sparse networks (α equal to 0.3 or less) do not percolate no matter how open the fractures are. On the other hand, many fracture networks with an intermediate value of α (equal to around 3) will percolate only in one or two directions. This can lead to very strong anisotropy in both resistivity and permeability (up to a factor of 160 and 109, respectively), with anisotropy increasing as the aperture of the fractures increases.

Seismicity-permeability coupling in the behavior of gas shales, CO2 storage and deep geothermal energy

Contemporary methods of energy conversions that reduce carbon intensity include sequestering CO2, fuel switching to lower-carbon sources, such as from gas shales, and recovering deep geothermal energy via EGS. In all of these endeavors, either maintaining the low permeability and integrity of caprocks or in controlling the growth of permeability in initially very-low-permeability shales and geothermal reservoirs represent key desires. At short-timescales of relevance, permeability is driven principally by deformations—in turn resulting from changes in total stresses, fluid pressure or thermal and chemical effects. These deformations may be intrinsically stable or unstable, result in aseismic or seismic deformation, with resulting changes in permeability conditioned by the deformational mode. We report experiments and models to represent the respective roles of mineralogy, texture, scale and overpressures on the evolution of friction, stability and permeability in fractured rocks. Models show a transition from high to low residual coefficient of friction for homogenous mixtures of strong and weak aggregates when the proportion of the weak material reaches 25% with a significant transition occurring at 50%. This transition may occur at much lower proportions where the material is structured, such as in a thin layer. For pre-existing fractures, we observe that fracture permeability declines during shearing while the increased sliding velocity reduces the rate of decline. The physics of these observed behaviors are explored via parametric studies and surface measurement of fractures, showing that both permeability and frictional strength are correlated to the fracture asperity evolution that is controlled in-turn by the sliding velocity and fracture material.

Digital rock analysis for accurate prediction of fractured media permeability

Determining the permeability of fractured rocks depends significantly on fracture geometry and topology. To date, no practical approach has been proposed to produce realistic binary images of fractured rocks from micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) images for fluid flow simulation. In this paper, a novel method is developed for generating a binary image that contains the true characteristics of fractured rocks for accurate computation of permeability. The method employs high-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) data for calibration of micro-CT images. Micro-CT is used to obtain 3D images of a highly fractured rock sample with a resolution of 16.5μm and SEM is applied to obtain images with nanometer resolution from polished surfaces of the sample. The SEM images are then registered to the micro-CT images to facilitate image segmentation and generate a calibration curve. The calibration curve correlates the grayscale values at the midpoint of each fracture to the true aperture size measured from SEM data. Thinned fractures of two subsets are extracted and used to obtain the gray-scale values at the midpoint of fractures. These are converted to the true aperture value using the calibration curve and subsequently grown by an adjustment algorithm to produce 3D calibrated binary images that are representative of the true fracture system. The connectivity and aperture size distribution of the subsets before and after calibration are quantified. The permeability of the subsets before and after calibration are computed using a direct numerical simulator and compared with experimental measurements. The computed permeabilities demonstrate that using non-calibrated images generates massive permeability errors whereas calibrated images produce accurate permeability results that nearly coincide with experimental measurments. The method can be applied to fractured rocks for better prediction of permeability and other petrophysical properties.

Mechanical properties and failure modes of rock samples with grout-infilled flaws: A particle mechanics modeling

Natural fractures are commonly infilled by the infilling materials, such as sheared-off or broken rock fragments and clay. Grouting has been widely used to improve the wellbore stability in oil or shale gas reservoirs and reduce the permeability of fractured rocks in tunnel vicinity, and thus rock fractures can also be manually infilled by grout. Although a large number of studies focused on the strength and failure behavior of rock samples with open flaws, the research on the mechanical properties and failure modes of rock specimens with infilled flaws is rather limited. In order to understand the effects of fillings on mechanical properties and crack propagation behavior of pre-flawed rocks, a large number of numerical uniaxial compression tests have been conducted for rock samples with single or double flaws which were open or infilled, using a particle mechanics method. The results showed that infillings play a significant role in improving the mechanical properties of pre-flawed rock samples, especially when the inclination angles of flaws are less than 45°. The infillings mainly play a role in transferring stress and reducing stress concentration at the flaw tip and bridge regions and thus infillings can change the crack initiation position, propagation direction and coalescence pattern in rock samples with infilled flaws. The effects of micro-parameters of infillings on the mechanical properties and behavior of rock samples with single flaws were also studied through sensitivity analysis.

Exploring the scale-dependent permeability of fractured andesite

Extension fractures in volcanic systems exist on all scales, from microscopic fractures to large fissures. They play a fundamental role in the movement of fluids and distribution of pore pressure, and therefore exert considerable influence over volcanic eruption recurrence. We present here laboratory permeability measurements for porous (porosity = 0.03–0.6) andesites before (i.e., intact) and after failure in tension (i.e., the samples host a throughgoing tensile fracture). The permeability of the intact andesites increases with increasing porosity, from 2×10−17 to 5×10−11 m2. Following fracture formation, the permeability of the samples (the equivalent permeability) falls within a narrow range, 2–6×10−11 m2, regardless of their initial porosity. However, laboratory measurements on fractured samples likely overestimate the equivalent permeability due to the inherent scale-dependence of permeability. To explore this scale-dependence, we first determined the permeability of the tensile fractures using a two-dimensional model that considers flow in parallel layers. Our calculations highlight that tensile fractures in low-porosity samples are more permeable (as high as 3.5×10−9 m2) than those in high-porosity samples (as low as 4.1×10−10 m2), a difference that can be explained by an increase in fracture tortuosity with porosity. We then use our fracture permeability data to model the equivalent permeability of fractured rock (with different host rock permeabilities, from 10−17 to 10−11 m2) with increasing lengthscale. We highlight that our modelling approach can be used to estimate the equivalent permeability of numerous scenarios at andesitic stratovolcanoes in which the fracture density and width and host rock porosity or permeability are known. The model shows that the equivalent permeability of fractured andesite depends heavily on the initial host rock permeability and the scale of interest. At a given lengthscale, the equivalent permeability of high-permeability rock (10−12 to 10−11 m2) is essentially unaffected by the presence of numerous tensile fractures. By contrast, a single tensile fracture increases the equivalent permeability of low-permeability rock (<10−15 m2) by many orders of magnitude. We also find that fractured, low-permeability rock (e.g., 10−17 m2) can have an equivalent permeability higher than that of similarly fractured rock with higher host rock permeability (e.g., 10−15 m2) due to the low-tortuosity of fractures in low-porosity andesite. Our modelling therefore outlines the importance of fractures in low-porosity, low-permeability volcanic systems. While our laboratory measurements show that, regardless of the initial porosity, the equivalent permeability of fractured rock on the laboratory scale is 2–6×10−11 m2, the equivalent permeability of low-permeability rock is significantly reduced as the scale of interest is increased. Therefore, due to the scale-dependence of permeability, laboratory measurements on pristine, low-permeability rocks significantly underestimate the equivalent permeability of fractured volcanic rock. Further, measurements on fractured rock samples can significantly overestimate the equivalent permeability. As a result, care must be taken when selecting samples in the field and when using laboratory data in volcano outgassing models. The data and modelling presented herein provide insight into the scale-dependence of the permeability of fractured volcanic rock, a prerequisite for understanding outgassing at active volcanoes.

The impact of different aperture distribution models and critical stress criteria on equivalent permeability in fractured rocks

AbstractPredicting equivalent permeability in fractured reservoirs requires an understanding of the fracture network geometry and apertures. There are different methods for defining aperture, based on outcrop observations (power law scaling), fundamental mechanics (sublinear length‐aperture scaling), and experiments (Barton‐Bandis conductive shearing). Each method predicts heterogeneous apertures, even along single fractures (i.e., intrafracture variations), but most fractured reservoir models imply constant apertures for single fractures. We compare the relative differences in aperture and permeability predicted by three aperture methods, where permeability is modeled in explicit fracture networks with coupled fracture‐matrix flow. Aperture varies along single fractures, and geomechanical relations are used to identify which fractures are critically stressed. The aperture models are applied to real‐world large‐scale fracture networks. (Sub)linear length scaling predicts the largest average aperture and equivalent permeability. Barton‐Bandis aperture is smaller, predicting on average a sixfold increase compared to matrix permeability. Application of critical stress criteria results in a decrease in the fraction of open fractures. For the applied stress conditions, Coulomb predicts that 50% of the network is critically stressed, compared to 80% for Barton‐Bandis peak shear. The impact of the fracture network on equivalent permeability depends on the matrix hydraulic properties, as in a low‐permeable matrix, intrafracture connectivity, i.e., the opening along a single fracture, controls equivalent permeability, whereas for a more permeable matrix, absolute apertures have a larger impact. Quantification of fracture flow regimes using only the ratio of fracture versus matrix permeability is insufficient, as these regimes also depend on aperture variations within fractures.

Near-exponential relationship between effective stress and permeability of porous rocks revealed in Gangi's phenomenological models and application to gas shales

A number of theoretical models, as well as empirical equations obtained by fitting specific experimental data, have been developed to describe the relationship between effective stress and permeability of intact and fractured porous rocks. It has been found that most experimental data can be fitted using exponential equations. In this study the modified power law equations by Gangi for intact and fractured rocks are revisited to evaluate their applicability for modeling experimental permeability data which display exponential or near-exponential effective stress dependency. It has been shown that Gangi's power law equations for both intact and fractured rocks can be approximated, over the range of effective stresses of practical interest, by exponential equations with compressibilities that are related to the physical properties of the rock. The significance of this work is that it has provided further theoretical evidence for the apparent exponential relationship between effective stress and permeability. Moreover, it allows for more vigorous theoretical equations to be applied with the easiness of empirical exponential equations. This is demonstrated by applying the models to the experimental permeability data for six gas shales reported recently.

A study of changes in deep fractured rock permeability due to coupled hydro-mechanical effects

This paper presents a numerical study of the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a fractured rock domain at 1000m depth below the land surface as a function of different levels of fluid pore pressure. A 2D fractured rock domain is adopted based on data obtained from outcrop mapping, displaying multiple fracture sets, fracture intersections, dead-end and curved fractures. A continuum based numerical model is used to evaluate the effects of compressive boundary stresses, cracking by tension failure in the intact rock and fractures and shear displacement along fractures on its equivalent permeability. Two in situ stress boundary conditions are considered: an isotropic case SR1 with the two horizontal boundary compressive stresses having the same magnitude, and an anisotropic case SR2 with the ratio between these compressive stress components set to be 2. In the SR2 case, changes in the local stress and stress ratio distributions due to different fluid pore pressure levels are anisotropic and more significant than in the SR1 case, because of tension failures in the intact rock forming bridges between fractures. These failure regions opened new flow connections between fractures and thereby caused important anisotropic changes in the flow paths, and significant decrease in local gradients of fluid pore pressure. The equivalent permeability increases sharply when the fluid pore pressure is approximately 90% of the magnitude of the minimum stress at the boundaries of the fractured rock domain. Results show that the equivalent permeability of the fractured rock domain is most sensitive to the fractures normal stiffness, the permeability of the tension failure regions and the power-law exponent for permeability change.

Fractured Rock Permeability as a Function of Temperature and Confining Pressure

Triaxial compression tests were carried out on Shikotsu welded tuff, Kimachi sandstone, and Inada granite under confining pressures of 1–15 MPa at 295 and 353 K. The permeability of the tuff declined monotonically with axial compression. The post-compression permeability became smaller than that before axial compression. The permeability of Kimachi sandstone and Inada granite declined at first, then began to increase before the peak load, and showed values that were almost constant in the residual strength state. The post-compression permeability of Kimachi sandstone was higher than that before axial compression under low confining pressures, but lower under higher confining pressures. On the other hand, the permeability of Inada granite was higher than that before axial compression regardless of the confining pressure values. For the all rock types, the post-compression permeability at 353 K was lower than at 295 K and the influence of the confining pressure was less at 353 K than at 295 K. The above temperature effects were observed apparently for Inada granite, only the latter effect was apparent for Shikotsu welded tuff, and they were not so obvious for Kimachi sandstone. The mechanisms causing the variation in rock permeability and sealability of underground openings were discussed.

Estimating hydraulic conductivity of fractured rocks from high‐pressure packer tests with an Izbash's law‐based empirical model

AbstractHigh‐pressure packer test (HPPT) is an enhanced constant head packer test for characterizing the permeability of fractured rocks under high‐pressure groundwater flow conditions. The interpretation of the HPPT data, however, remains difficult due to the transition of flow conditions in the conducting structures and the hydraulic fracturing‐induced permeability enhancement in the tested rocks. In this study, a number of HPPTs were performed in the sedimentary and intrusive rocks located at 450 m depth in central Hainan Island. The obtained Q‐P curves were divided into a laminar flow phase (I), a non‐Darcy flow phase (II), and a hydraulic fracturing phase (III). The critical Reynolds number for the deviation of flow from linearity into phase II was 25−66. The flow of phase III occurred in sparsely to moderately fractured rocks, and was absent at the test intervals of perfect or poor intactness. The threshold fluid pressure between phases II and III was correlated with RQD and the confining stress. An Izbash's law‐based analytical model was employed to calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the tested rocks in different flow conditions. It was demonstrated that the estimated hydraulic conductivity values in phases I and II are basically the same, and are weakly dependent on the injection fluid pressure, but it becomes strongly pressure dependent as a result of hydraulic fracturing in phase III. The hydraulic conductivity at different test intervals of a borehole is remarkably enhanced at highly fractured zone or contact zone, but within a rock unit of weak heterogeneity, it decreases with the increase of depth.

A fractal analysis of permeability for fractured rocks

Rocks with shear fractures or faults widely exist in nature such as oil/gas reservoirs, and hot dry rocks, etc. In this work, the fractal scaling law for length distribution of fractures and the relationship among the fractal dimension for fracture length distribution, fracture area porosity and the ratio of the maximum length to the minimum length of fractures are proposed. Then, a fractal model for permeability for fractured rocks is derived based on the fractal geometry theory and the famous cubic law for laminar flow in fractures. It is found that the analytical expression for permeability of fractured rocks is a function of the fractal dimension Df for fracture area, area porosity ϕ, fracture density D, the maximum fracture length lmax, aperture a, the facture azimuth α and facture dip angle θ. Furthermore, a novel analytical expression for the fracture density is also proposed based on the fractal geometry theory for porous media. The validity of the fractal model is verified by comparing the model predictions with the available numerical simulations.

Fractured rock stress‐permeability relationships from in situ data and effects of temperature and chemical‐mechanical couplings

AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to (i) review field data on stress‐induced permeability changes in fractured rock; (ii) describe estimation of fractured rock stress‐permeability relationships through model calibration against such field data; and (iii) discuss observations of temperature and chemically mediated fracture closure and its effect on fractured rock permeability. The field data that are reviewed includein situblock experiments, excavation‐induced changes in permeability around tunnels, borehole injection experiments, depth (and stress) dependent permeability, and permeability changes associated with a large‐scale rock‐mass heating experiment. Data show how the stress‐permeability relationship of fractured rock very much depends on localin situconditions, such as fracture shear offset and fracture infilling by mineral precipitation. Field and laboratory experiments involving temperature have shown significant temperature‐driven fracture closure even under constant stress. Such temperature‐driven fracture closure has been described as thermal overclosure and relates to better fitting of opposing fracture surfaces at high temperatures, or is attributed to chemically mediated fracture closure related to pressure solution (and compaction) of stressed fracture surface asperities. Back‐calculated stress‐permeability relationships from field data may implicitly account for such effects, but the relative contribution of purely thermal‐mechanical and chemically mediated changes is difficult to isolate. Therefore, it is concluded that further laboratory andin situexperiments are needed to increase the knowledge of the true mechanisms behind thermally driven fracture closure, and to further assess the importance of chemical‐mechanical coupling for the long‐term evolution of fractured rock permeability.

A Field and Modeling Study of Fractured Rock Permeability Reduction Using Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation

Microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) offers an attractive alternative to traditional grouting technologies for creating barriers to groundwater flow and containing subsurface contamination, but has only thus far been successfully demonstrated at the laboratory scale and predominantly in porous media. We present results of the first field experiments applying MICP to reduce fractured rock permeability in the subsurface. Initially, the ureolytic bacterium, Sporosarcina pasteurii, was fixed in the fractured rock. Subsequent injection of cementing fluid comprising calcium chloride and urea resulted in precipitation of large quantities (approximately 750 g) of calcite; significant reduction in the transmissivity of a single fracture over an area of several m(2) was achieved in around 17 h of treatment. A novel numerical model is also presented which simulates the field data well by coupling flow and bacterial and solute reactive transport processes including feedback due to aperture reduction via calcite precipitation. The results show that MICP can be successfully manipulated under field conditions to reduce the permeability of fractured rock and suggest that an MICP-based technique, informed by numerical models, may form the basis of viable solutions to aid pollution mitigation.

Fractal Analysis of Permeability of Unsaturated Fractured Rocks

A physical conceptual model for water retention in fractured rocks is derived while taking into account the effect of pore size distribution and tortuosity of capillaries. The formula of calculating relative hydraulic conductivity of fractured rock is given based on fractal theory. It is an issue to choose an appropriate capillary pressure-saturation curve in the research of unsaturated fractured mass. The geometric pattern of the fracture bulk is described based on the fractal distribution of tortuosity. The resulting water content expression is then used to estimate the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of the fractured medium based on the well-known model of Burdine. It is found that for large enough ranges of fracture apertures the new constitutive model converges to the empirical Brooks-Corey model.

Modelling stress-dependent permeability in fractured rock including effects of propagating and bending fractures

The influence of in-situ stresses on flow processes in fractured rock is investigated using a novel modelling approach. The combined finite-discrete element method (FEMDEM) is used to model the deformation of a fractured rock mass. The fracture wall displacements and aperture changes are modelled in response to uniaxial and biaxial stress states. The resultant changes in flow properties of the rock mass are investigated using the Complex Systems Modelling Platform (CSMP++). CSMP++ is used to model single-phase flow through fractures with variable aperture and a permeable rock matrix. The study is based on a geological outcrop mapping of a low density fracture pattern that includes the realism of intersections, bends and segmented features. By applying far-field (boundary) stresses to a square region, geologically important phenomena are modelled including fracture-dependent stress heterogeneity, the re-activation of pre-existing fractures (i.e. opening, closing and shearing), the propagation of new fractures and the development of fault zones. Flow anisotropy is investigated under various applied stresses and matrix permeabilities. In-situ stress conditions that encourage a closing of fractures together with a more pervasive matrix-dominated flow are identified. These are compared with conditions supporting more localised flow where fractures are prone to dilatational shearing and can be more easily exploited by fluids. The natural fracture geometries modelled in this work are not perfectly straight, promoting fracture segments that dilate as they shear. We have demonstrated the introduction of several realistic processes that have an influence on natural systems: fractures can propagate with wing cracks; there is the potential for new fractures to connect with existing fractures, thus increasing the connectivity and flow; blocks can rotate when bounded by fractures, bent fractures lead to locally different aperture development; highly heterogeneous stress distributions emerge naturally. Results presented in this work provide a mechanically rigorous demonstration that a change in the stress state can cause reactivation of pre-existing fractures and channelling of flow in critically stressed fractures.

Permeability of Fractured Media under Confining Pressure: A Simplified Model

An elastic-plastic model was developed to describe the deformation and permeability of fractured rocks under confining pressure. Elastic and elastic-plastic contact models were used in the model to analyze the deformations of a representative element containing a single fracture under various confining pressures. The present work utilized elements from contact mechanics and viscous flows to derive an expression for permeability of fractured rocks under a range of confining pressures. The elastic-plastic model predictions for coal permeability under loading and unloading confining pressure were compared with the experimental data. The new model exhibited trends similar to the data for the range of confining pressures used in the experiments. The model can be used to predict the permeability of other fractured media with different material properties.

Physical Modelling of Stress-dependent Permeability in Fractured Rocks

This paper presents the results of laboratory experiments conducted to study the impact of stress on fracture deformation and permeability of fractured rocks. The physical models (laboratory specimens) consisted of steel cubes simulating a rock mass containing three sets of orthogonal fractures. The laboratory specimens were subjected to two or three cycles of hydrostatic loading/unloading followed by the measurement of displacement and permeability. The results show a considerable difference in both deformation and permeability trends between the first loading and the subsequent loading/unloading cycles. However, the micrographs of the contact surfaces taken before and after the tests show that the standard deviation of asperity heights of measured surfaces are affected very little by the loadings. This implies that both deformation and permeability are rather controlled by the highest surface asperities which cannot be picked up by the conventional roughness characterization technique. We found that the dependence of flow rate on mechanical aperture follows a power law with the exponent n smaller or larger than three depending upon the loading stage. Initially, when the maximum height of the asperities is high, the exponent is slightly smaller than 3. The first loading, however, flattens these asperities. After that, the third loading and unloading yielded the exponent of around 4. Due to the roughness of contact surfaces, the flow route is no longer straight but tortuous resulting in flow length increase.

단계양수시험으로부터 우물수두손실 항을 이용한 단열의 고.저 투수성 평가

Rorabaugh(1953)에 의해 재정리된 단계양수시험 해석해 <TEX>$s_w=BQ+CQ^p$</TEX>는 단열암반대수층에서 비선형으로 증가하는 수위강하에 매우 적합하며, 현장에서 관측된 수위강하 값과 추정된 수위강하 사이의 제곱근 평균제곱오차(RMSE) 값이 매우 낮음을 보여주었다. 우물수두손실(<TEX>$CQ^p$</TEX>)의 <TEX>$C$</TEX> 값은 <TEX>$3.689{\times}10^{-19}{\sim}5.825{\times}10^{-7}$</TEX>, <TEX>$P$</TEX> 값은 3.459~8.290의 범위로 산정되었으며, 지표로부터 하부심도로 내려 갈수록 양수율 증가에 따른 수위강하는 매우 크게 나타났다. 단열암반대수층에서의 우물수두손실은 다공질매질에서와 달리 단열특성(단열의 틈, 간격, 상호 연결성)에 의한 영향으로 나타나므로, 우물수두손실의 <TEX>$C$</TEX> 와 <TEX>$P$</TEX> 값은 단열암 반대수층의 난류구간과 고 저 투수성 단열암반의 특성을 해석하는데 매우 중요하다. 그 결과, 우물수두손실 항의 <TEX>$C$</TEX> 와 <TEX>$P$</TEX> 값에 대한 회귀분석 결과로부터 암반대수층의 난류구간과 수리특성의 관계가 파악되었으며, <TEX>$C$</TEX> 와 <TEX>$P$</TEX> 값의 관계가 단열암반대수층의 수리특성 해석에 있어 매우 유용함을 확인할 수 있었다. The equation of the step-drawdown test "<TEX>$s_w=BQ+CQ^p$</TEX>" written by Rorabaugh (1953) is suitable for drawdown increased non-linearly in the fractured rocks. It was found that value of root mean square error (RMSE) between observed and calculated drawdowns was very low. The calculated <TEX>$C$</TEX> (well head loss coefficient) and <TEX>$P$</TEX> (well head loss exponent) value of well head losses (<TEX>$CQ^p$</TEX>) ranged <TEX>$3.689{\times}10^{-19}{\sim}5.825{\times}10^{-7}$</TEX> and 3.459~8.290, respectively. It appeared that the deeper depth in pumping well the larger drawdowns due to pumping rate increase. The well head loss in the fractured rocks, unlike that in porous media, is affected by properties of fractures (fractures of aperture, spacing, and connection) around pumping well. The <TEX>$C$</TEX> and <TEX>$P$</TEX> value in the well head loss is very important to interpret turbulence interval and properties of high or low permeability of fractured rock. As a result, regression analysis of <TEX>$C$</TEX> and <TEX>$P$</TEX> value in the well head losses identified the relationship of turbulence interval and hydraulic properties. The relationship between <TEX>$C$</TEX> and <TEX>$P$</TEX> value turned out very useful to interpret hydraulic properties of the fractured rocks.

Experimental investigation of CO 2 breakthrough and flow mechanisms in shale

Supercritical CO 2 breakthrough and flow mechanisms in shale have been investigated in laboratory experiments using a high pressure flow cell and cylindrical samples of shale from the Draupne formation in the North Sea. The main objective is to study the basic mechanisms involved in the breakthrough process and define the controlling parameters for supercritical CO 2 flow in a low permeable shale. Experimental testing provides new insight into the CO 2 breakthrough process through simultaneous measurements of deformation and ultrasonic velocities in the sample. A marked sample dilation associated with the CO 2 breakthrough is identified accompanied with a pronounced drop in ultrasonic velocities. X-ray images of the sample using a high resolution 3D computer tomography (CT) scanner provide information on macroscopic fracture distribution inside the sample before and after testing. The CO 2 breakthrough pressure for the Draupne material seems to depend on confining pressure and effective pressure rather than pore pressure difference across the sample. After breakthrough the effective CO 2 permeability was found to follow a simple model for permeability in fractured rock. The drop in ultrasonic velocity was associated with mechanical changes and possible micro fracturing inside the sample. Based on our observations we conclude that pressure-induced opening of micro-fractures during the breakthrough process is an important mechanism for flow in addition to capillary displacement. Our findings may have important consequences for later testing and estimation of CO 2 breakthrough pressure and flow in shale.

Laboratory observations of permeability enhancement by fluid pressure oscillation of in situ fractured rock

Received 5 June 2010; revised 5 November 2010; accepted 22 December 2010; published 24 February 2011. [1] We report on laboratory experiments designed to investigate the influence of pore pressure oscillations on the effective permeability of fractured rock. Berea sandstone samples were fractured in situ under triaxial stresses of tens of megapascals, and deionized water was forced through the incipient fracture under conditions of steady and oscillating pore pressure. We find that short‐term pore pressure oscillations induce long‐term transient increases in effective permeability of the fractured samples. The magnitude of the effective permeability enhancements scales with the amplitude of pore pressure oscillations, and changes persist well after the stress perturbation. The maximum value of effective permeability enhancement is 5 × 10 −16 m 2 with a background permeability of 1 × 10 −15 m 2 ; that is, the maximum enhanced permeability is 1.5 × 10 −15 m 2 . We evaluate poroelastic effects and show that hydraulic storage release does not explain our observations. Effective permeability recovery following dynamic oscillations occurs as the inverse square root of time. The recovery indicates that a reversible mechanism, such as clogging/unclogging of fractures, as opposed to an irreversible one, like microfracturing, is responsible for the transient effective permeability increase. Our work suggests the feasibility of dynamically controlling the effective permeability of fractured systems. The result has consequences for models of earthquake triggering and permeability enhancement in fault zones due to dynamic shaking from near and distant earthquakes.