Periphery Of World Research Articles

Mediating Spaces: The Scales of Yugoslav Socialist Thought

Beginning with its emergence in the 1870s and carrying through to the wars of the 1990s, Yugoslav socialism was animated by various visions of supranational affiliation: from Balkan federalism to communist Slavism to the nonaligned movement and European unification. These projects were examples of what this article terms mediating spaces: strategies of spatial consolidation designed to mediate their constituent nations’ integration into global capitalist modernity. Throughout the long twentieth century intellectuals on the world periphery set out to secure political sovereignty and economic development at a scale between the national and the global. These spatial projects were particularly pronounced in Yugoslavia, where the fragmentation of multiethnic empires made questions of supranational unity especially urgent. Developing the concept of mediating spaces, this article proposes a mode of intellectual history that approaches the global not as the scope of intellectual mobility or the horizon of historical inquiry, but rather as a generative scale of human experience that conditioned the formation of modern radical thought.

When Neo-Gramscians Engage the Postcolonial: Insights into Subaltern Consent and Dissent in the Re/Unmaking of Hegemonic Orders

The neo-Gramscian scholarship locates the agency of common sense in the reproduction of the hegemonic world order but under-theorises the underpinnings for dissimilar subaltern responses to common sense. This article draws on insights from Gramsci and anti-colonial thinkers to unpack three analytical categories for investigating subaltern consent and dissent in hegemonic orders. These analytical categories offer a tripartite framework which maintains the central theoretical argument that the key underlying rationale why some subaltern social groups consent to the hegemonic order while others dissent from the same order could be found in the subaltern past experience, (non)commitment to alternative ideologies and level of socio-political consciousness. Essentially, the article contributes to the theoretical discussion of the re/unmaking of hegemony and demonstrates how neo-Gramscian analysts could further reconnect with Gramsci and engage the postcolonial literature to enhance our understanding of the continuity and disruption of hegemonic orders in the world periphery.

“Американская империя” как ресурс легитимности доминирования США после холодной войны

Empires are normally referred to such forms of direct rule that rely primarily on violence and coercion. These features lead to permanent lack of political legitimacy and make imperial polities vulnerable to various sorts of resistance and contestation. In international politics, fragility of “imperial” legitimacy is exacerbated by persistence of “anarchy” as omnipresent condition, characterized by the absence of supreme authority beyond the nation-states’ borders. Similar concerns are normally articulated by international relations scholars regarding the so-called “American empire”, which rests upon highly inequitable relations between the U.S. and its “clients”, “satellites” and “semi-sovereign protectorates” scattered across the globe. While conventional accounts consider these arrangements as based primarily on illegitimate relations of crude dominance, this article examines the “American empire” rather as legitimizing vehicle of the United States’ post-Cold War power than the tool of serving Washington’s needs. To this purpose, the author engages theoretical insights of A. Giddens’ “structuration theory” and explores the United States’ “empire” as a structure of domination, relying on sharp asymmetry of material and positional resources, and the rules, which assign legitimate capacities and set the standards of appropriate behavior. In doing so, the author seeks to overcome shortcomings of the existing approaches, which consider “social structures” as the means of either attaining collective goals or building the U.S.-led imperial order. After all, the paper demonstrates how structural properties of the “American empire” serve to organize practices of subordination and intervention as legitimate patterns of the relationships between Washington and its “clients” and “satellites” in the world periphery.

Peripheral Literatures and the History of Capitalism: An Introduction

The introduction argues for rethinking the problem of historical transition under capitalism from the vantage point of peripheral literatures. The understanding of the relationships between such transition and literary form, and the periodizing schemas employed to make sense of them, has largely been limited to heartlands of accumulation in Western Europe and North America. Much less has been written about how literatures from the rest of the world have expressed transitions to and within this global, if internally variegated and uneven, system. This introduction asks how literature from the world's peripheries and semiperipheries have written the history of capitalism.

КЛАСТЕРИЗАЦІЯ НАЦІОНАЛЬНОЇ ЕКОНОМІКИ В УМОВАХ РОЗВИТКУ МЕРЕЖЕВОЇ ЕКОНОМІКИ

The article is devoted to the processes of clustering in the conditions of development of network economy, post-industrial society. The production of intellectual product and new technologies is becoming more profitable and monopolized by developed countries. Today they are suppliers of a qualitatively new unlimited resource – information and knowledge, receiving at a deliberately reduced cost limited material resources from the countries of the world periphery. This division of labor creates a new mechanism for the formation and distribution of wealth. This division of labor creates a new mechanism for the formation and distribution of wealth. The hallmarks of an information society are: an increase in the role of information and knowledge in society; an increase in the share of information communications, products and services in the gross domestic product; creation of a global information space that provides effective information interaction of people, their access to world information resources and their needs for information products and services. The issues of network economy as a conductor of post-industrial society and clustering are revealed. States that do not join the technological process remain on the sidelines of global economic transformation and risk disappearing as independent. XX century was characterized by rapid transformation processes, which covered all groups of countries, had different nature of implementation and, accordingly, different results. Such views once again confirm the need for countries to achieve self-organization, gaining the opportunity to develop progressively, to be dynamic. Foreign experience of clustering is studied and attention is paid to European states. They are implemented in accordance with the decisions of the EU Lisbon Summit held in 2000 with the aim of introducing in the member states of the Union a knowledge economy capable of ensuring competitiveness on the basis of innovation clusters that exceeds the performance of the US and Japanese economies. In Ukraine, cluster potential exists in agriculture, food and metal production, oil, gas, transport services and logistics. We will leave for further development the interdependence of the quantity / quality of the country's labor force and the information component in the context of clustering development. Of course, the availability of skilled labor is an indicator of economic development and the availability of active information space.

SPECTERS OF RELIGION

In his publications since the three-volume Spheres project, Peter Sloterdijk thematizes religion as a now outmoded immunological system. He says it can no longer perform its historical function because humans have lost the protection of a world periphery. The entirety of what was “outside” is now “inside,” and this has happened because: (1) spheres are systems, and as Luhmann shows, systems naturally complexify and expand themselves by becoming self-reflective; and (2), as Nietzsche says, humans are driven by a need to surpass themselves. The loss of world periphery is manifest in the climate crisis, which registers as a general sense that we must “change our lives.” This gives Sloterdijk the chance (or so I argue) to create a new sphere (in the symbolic mode) that can be shared by all humans, a function no so-called world religion can fulfill. This new solidarity would come about when the earth becomes the completing “other” to every self, and individuals act in accordance with the imperative to assure the existence of human life on earth. The last section of the paper contrasts Sloterdijk’s spherology with Latour’s actor–network theory, and his later move into political ecology. I argue that, despite their alliance against “globalism,” Latour and Sloterdijk are working with very different models of space (spheres vs. networks) and have different agendas vis-à-vis the climate crisis. Sloterdijk is trying to build ethical solidarity among humans, while Latour is concerned with a politics (in the Schmittian sense) between both human and nonhuman actors, including Gaia, which is both the space of action (a network of networks) and an actor in its own right. And finally, I take up Sloterdijk’s statement that religions were never anything other than human practices, compared with Latour’s call for acting “religiously,” which means “respecting what others cling to.” I do this by way of showing there are conceptual limitations to the concept of spheres and to Sloterdijk’s project overall.

Thinking food like an East European: A critical reflection on the framing of food systems

Drawing on our long-term research experiences, in this deliberately provocative but also reflexive paper we argue that international food and agriculture studies constitute a research area that would particularly benefit from insights obtained from research conducted in the world's peripheries—in this case, specifically from insights on East European food systems. Instead of seeing them as textbook case studies of undeveloped, traditional and hence uninspiring systems, we propose to study them from the East European perspective. This enables us to move away from a unidirectional development path and to acknowledge the diversity, resilience and unintended but real sustainability of the melange of East European formal and informal food systems. Such endeavour reveals food practices that cannot easily be reduced to ‘food chains’, ‘food initiatives’ or diets. It recognises meanings that go beyond the conventional food system terminology and are rooted in surrounding contexts. Evidence from Eastern Europe reveals a rich diversity of food practices challenging normative assumptions and neatly structured explanatory models underlying Western food system scholarship.

Critical circles and regional reputations: the Chicago imagists and the politics of art world peripheries

Current research on artistic groups suggests the career benefits of being place-based. This article examines the Chicago Imagists—a group defined by local recognition in Chicago and limited national renown—to explain the limits of these benefits when actors’ interests within a local scene diverge. Studying critical discourse on the Imagists from the 1960s to 1980s, we explain how “critical circles,” tied to the interests of regional evaluators, mediate artistic reputations. During initial group formation, Chicago artists and critics shared the goal of developing a distinct local art. However, critics’ investment in defining the boundaries of a “Chicago” style to further their careers ultimately diverged from Imagists’ investment in mastering a broader “American” style to further theirs. Chicago critics’ ensuing debates about the parochial limits of the label—and New York critics’ framing of Imagist work as provincial—further came to organize the very regionalism Imagist artists hoped to evade. We argue that attending to the divergent interests in the cultural field within which collaborative circles operate expands understanding of how affordances of place shape artistic careers. This study has further implications for theorizing the interplay of impression management and strong program perspectives on cultural wealth.

«POLITICAL COMPRADOR» AS A PHENOMENON IN THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION

The main factors of the comprador phenomenon as an actor of globalization are analyzed. The global liberal democracy that took shape during the second half of the 20th century is now being transformed. New actors are entering on the geopolitical space. Geopolitical order in the first decades of the XX s. faces the challenges of both the past century and the new. The issues of the new agenda and factors of new challenges are highlighted; shows the prospects for overcoming geopolitical turbulence. Attention is focused on the intensification of the challenges of the 20th century. along with the emergence of new ones in the second decade of the twenty-first century. Among these challenges - the Covid-19 pandemic and, accordingly, the global quarantine, which led to an increase in social tension in societies of different regions of the world, put on question the ability of state structures to ensure national security and the health of their citizens, which in general can have unexpected consequences, both for individual regions and countries, and the world as a whole. Due to the closure of state borders, the curtailment of transport links between continents and countries, between the internal national regions, a situation that is atypical for a globalized world has been created, which is familiar to us from the historical past, namely, the recreation of the world of fragmented feudalism, where other mechanisms of social and political interaction operate. It is indicated that from the point of view of the world-systems analysis, a small number of them belong to the capitalist center, that is, to the core, where the global agenda and the methods of protecting national security are formed. But the overwhelming majority of countries and states are in the periphery and semi-periphery groups. The phenomenon, which was the result of the colonial policy of nascent capitalism, persists to this day, but in other forms, retaining its functions. At the same time, the need to support the neo-colonial order remains, and therefore there is still a political interest in the formation of such groups in the third world (periphery) countries.

Vær: On Place, Weather, Being, and Agency

This photo installation is a side‐product of ethnographic research in Troms⊘, a city of 75,000 tucked along the Norwegian coast above the Arctic Circle. The main research addressed longer timeframes—examining Sami ethnopolitics, institution‐building, and social change since the 1970s, a time that marked increased engagement of indigenous peoples with national powers in many countries around the world, including in Norway. That project entailed time on‐the‐ground in Norway's far north observing the social diacritics of ethnicity in daily life, public events, and local media. Once we arrived, we found that weather and the changing of the light played a dominant role in our daily experience of life above the Arctic Circle, leading us toward this photo exhibit and contemplation. We had to develop techniquess for paying attention to the backdrop—not the microsocial processes of the main research, but rather the steady, shifting hum of the natural world. As a supplement to fieldnotes, shooting quick digital photos and videos became a sensorially‐rich means to capture the moment.In this photo installation, we present images of the environment. We use the visual vocabulary of the changing of the light in the arctic to consider the ways in which the natural world's rhythms act as the original, powerful “automated” force, challenging humans' sense of agency, creating the context—and certain limits—for their ability to exert their desired outcomes in the world. How can new technologies of automation be built to suit human life where society is already tailored to rhythms of nature that defy assumptions held by many of us living at lower latitudes? Among these 52 tiles, one for each week of the year, we include black tiles representing the time periods that we have never spent in Troms⊘, the gaps in our witnessing of the flow of annual natural cycles and annualized events in the collective social calendar of the Norwegian north. These visual and sensorial “gaps” raise questions about the constraints of ethnographers' knowledge, the reach of technologists' innovations into the world's peripheries, and embodied realities of place. Intermittency isn't inherently a disadvantage in ethnographic work, but it must be accounted for. How do ethnographers admit, adjust for, and overcome the intermittency of their presence at a fieldwork site? This question is especially pressing for those working in industry environments that demand short timeframes for moving from fieldwork to findings. For technologists, there is a related challenge: how to anticipate the ambient and embodied feeling of life where it is lived when they design products that travel across geographies. We hope this photo display provides a fruitful space for EPIC attendees to consider the strengths and limitations of their own methods.

Latin America in search of new formats of international cooperation

The rapid spread of information and communication technologies, trans-nationalization and hybridization of international actors influenced the entire system of international relations. The globalization trend is more and more often competing with the deglobalization trend, and in the 21st century the unipolar world began to give way to a polycentric world order, where regions, formerly considered the world periphery play a special role; Latin and Caribbean America (LCA) is an example of this trend. At the same time, the new centers are often lagging behind in the scientific and technical sphere, they lack foreign investment, some of them face devaluations, many of these countries are involved in regional military and/or political conflicts. From time to time, they dramatically lose the accumulated potential of influence due to large-scale economic crises (Brazil and Venezuela in recent years are good examples of this trend). The region participates actively in many world processes and they are actively involved in integration processes within their own continent and also make a significant contribution to the development of an informal dialogue along the “South” - “South” line (such as G77, BRICS, IBSA, MIKTA). Today, LCA is also experiencing a period of formation of a new regional configuration, when new territorial reorganization contributed to the emergence of various regional groups (ALBA, CELAC, Pacific Alliance, Mesoamerica project and UNASUR). However, in the past few years, a number of events and factors have had a major impact on the LCA integration process, leading to its serious reconfiguration. The endless economic crisis and noticeable political instability in Venezuela were lethal to ALBA and UNASUR and also affected (albeit to a lesser extent) MERCOSUR. CELAC, created as a platform for cooperation and consultation under the slogan “unity in diversity”, also encountered obvious difficulties in the context of the growing political heterogeneity of the region. The LCA is about reformatting the integration process, the complementarity of the existing blocks towards each other. The purpose of this issue is to show the place of the region in the context of the system of international relations and to demonstrate the different perception of it within LCA countries, to indicate their abilities to formulate particular and common responses to new challenges, to formulate their own priorities independent from global actors' interest and to achieve them on the world stage.

Latin America in the context of global processes

Global changes at the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries confirm the formation of a polycentric world, where the states of the previous world periphery play an increasingly important role. A fundamental collective research prepared by Saint Petersburg historians analyses the role of Latin America in the context of globalization. Political changes, territorial disputes, armed conflicts and other challenges to the regional security are also examined. Special attention is paid to the integration, relations between Latin American states with extra regional actors of world politics, to the role of the continent in global political processes. The monograph also describes the foreign policy of some states in the region and their position on key issues on the global agenda.

Typology of countries of the world according to the development level of international tourism

A multifactor tourism typology of countries of the world having a structural-functional character has been developed. It provides insight into the typological features of the global spatial structure of international tourism, reflecting the intensity of international tourism flows, their geography, the importance of the tourism industry for the national economy as well as the general attributes of territorial organization of international tourism, and the dynamics of its development. Five main types of touristic types of countries have been identified. The following indicators were used for characterization of the countries and their comparison: the size of the territory, and the population size; the general level of socioeconomic development; the level and character of development of international tourism; the characteristic properties of touristic demand; the orientedness of tourism flows; characteristics of touristic offer; the degree of influence of international tourism on the national economy; characteristics of the state policy in the sphere of tourism, and touristic specialization. The first type includes the economically highly developed countries with mature national systems of international tourism forming the center of the world’s touristic space. The second type is represented by countries belonging to the semi-periphery of the world’s touristic space with an intensely forming state-supported polyfunctional system of international tourism. The third type includes moderately developed countries of the semi-periphery of the world’s touristic space with a polyfunctional system of international tourism in the stage of transformation and formation of a civilized travel market. The fourth type comprises small island states of the Caribbean Basin which belong to the semi-periphery and, in part, to the “advanced” periphery of the world’s touristic space. The fifth type combines developing countries belonging to the periphery of the world’s touristic space, with a weakly developed market of international tourism.

Decolonizing Vision on Borderlands: The Mexican Southern Borderlands in Critical Review

This article critically examines the Mexican southern borderlands, understood both as a concrete borderline region and as a concept constructed by scholars. Building on recent borderlands debates, the article constructs a decolonizing vision, which provokes us to ask: To what extent is the borderlands perspective colonialist? By dividing the world into centers and peripheries, do we automatically repeat the centrist interpretations? Are the habitants of the borderlands thinking they are living in a periphery? By exploring academic literature on Mexican southern borderlands and decolonizing criticisms set forward by the Zapatista movement, the article brings forth epistemological challenges related to colonialist imagery and vocabulary on borderlands, suggesting a decolonizing vision from which to shed a new light to the world political centers and peripheries. This way, the article attempts at bridging critical borderlands studies with the field of international relations.

Sports Mobilities Across Borders: Postcolonial Perspectives

The circulation of mobile professional athletes, a phenomenon whose visibility increased exponentially in the last couple of decades of the twentieth century, poses important questions for postcolonial approaches to the human condition. At first glance, the orientation of entire segments of the population in some countries in the global South to the possibility of migrating to sport careers in the global North seems to reproduce patterns of economic dependence of the world's peripheries on the world's centres, with the latter obtaining resources from the former in non-reciprocal fashion. A more nuanced approach, however, demands that these dynamics be framed in a broader context of multiple power relations that are at once local and global, material and ideational, and rooted in complex histories that have somewhat obscured colonial relations of yesteryears. This approach is illustrated here with materials about migration-oriented football academies in West Africa and the transnational circulation of Pacific Island rugby players.

The G-77 An essential element of democratization

I was in my early forties when the Group of 77 (G-77) was established. Together with the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), it was a symbol of the aspiration of developing countries for emancipation, economic and political independence, and development. It was a collective means and undertaking to help attain these interrelated objectives, and to give a role in the world arena and international affairs to the newly emerged nations and the states on the world periphery. Today, fifty years later, I am in my early nineties, and I am happy to witness the fact that the original, underlying rationale and objectives which led to the formation of the G-77 retain their validity and continued relevance.

The centre is dead, long live the centre! Reflections on centre and periphery in Australian senior history curricula

PurposeBy deconstructing centres and peripheries in Australian history curricula, the purpose of this paper is to establish in what ways these documents blended local, state‐specific concepts of major civilisations with trans‐local, and even global cultural assumptions about centre and periphery in world history.Design/methodology/approachThe paper identifies a specific idea of centres in the 2009 Shape of the Australian Curriculum published by the National Curriculum Board. It demanded that “[s]tudents should have an appreciation of the major civilisations of Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia”. The idea of five groups of “major civilisations” is used to frame an analysis of history curricula from Western Australia and New South Wales. Syllabi from these States are used as examples because they demonstrate oppositional positions, geographically and in their approach to history teaching. Only senior secondary syllabi exhibit a continuous development of the subject history in most Australian states and territories. Hence, the paper deconstructs history syllabi for Years 11 and 12 and discusses in what ways a discourse between centre and periphery can be identified.FindingsThe author proposes a concept of a global centre in history curricula, which is found in multifaceted expressions at the peripheries.Originality/valueFully acknowledging that syllabi emerge from a web of local influences, which include state‐specific social, political, economic, and administrative factors, the paper adds a global perspective to the understanding of Australian history curricula which draws on the idea of cultural power.

One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the “Oriental” in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula (review)

Reviewed by: One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the “Oriental” in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula Araceli Tinajero López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the “Oriental” in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010. 405 pp. Es casi imposible emprender un estudio sobre cualquier aspecto del orientalismo sin aludir al clásico libro de Edward Said, Orientalismo. Para el crítico “orientalismo” es específicamente un fenómeno complejo de representaciones del Oriente fabricadas por el Occidente. Por lo tanto, el hecho de orientalizar “orientalismo” fue una invención europea (su estudio es sobre fuentes inglesas y francesas) basada en representaciones de seres exóticos, romances, memorias, paisajes evocadores y experiencias extraordinarias. En base a su teoría, el discurso europeo sobre el Oriente está basado en una relación de poder y dominación que establece un orden jerárquico y hegemónico. Las oposiciones binarias que presenta su cabal estudio están íntimamente relacionadas al concepto de “centro” y “periferia”. De sobra está decir que la denominación del “centro” y la “periferia” tiene que ver con una postura relativa, psicológica e ideológica que tiene sus raíces en el imperialismo europeo. Sin embargo, ¿cómo se estudia el discurso oriental producido por sociedades donde no existe una relación entre imperio-colonia sino las relaciones entre sujetos pos-colonizados? ¿Cómo se manifiestan las representaciones que no son parte de un orden jerárquico o donde no existe la dicotomía que entra dentro de las convenciones de lo que se ha venido denominando como el “centro” y la “periferia”? Sin duda alguna, las complejas interacciones manifestadas en un discurso “periférico” sobre otro “periférico” ofrecen alternativas que se diferencian del orden impuesto por oposiciones binarias y consecuentemente por relaciones de poder entre “centroperiferia”. Editado por Ignacio López-Calvo, One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the “Oriental” in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula es uno de los libros más extensos sobre el orientalismo. En éste se analizan diversos discursos orientales en las Américas (Latinoamérica y Estados Unidos) así como en España, Portugal y Brasil. Como he subrayado en previos estudios sobre el orientalismo en Hispanoamérica, al privilegiar lo “periférico” (el Oriente) o lo “marginal” a partir de lo “periférico” (Hispanoamérica) no significa dejar de cuestionar la complejidad de la problemática de la identidad cultural y la representatividad. Es decir, no se trata de inaugurar un sistema estable y simétrico donde no exista la posibilidad de cuestionamientos de las estrategias discursivas y controversias básicas que surgen a partir de una ruptura epistemológica. Los artículos en One World Periphery Reads the Other analizan el encuentro histórico entre asiáticos y latinoamericanos, los procesos de asimilación dentro de las comunidades asiáticas que emigraron a América Latina, la forma en que se representa el sujeto asiático en la historia, la cultura, las artes y la literatura de América Latina, la relación que existe entre las comunidades asiáticas, africanas y otros grupos minoritarios en países específicos, la herencia literaria y cultural oriental en España, Portugal y Brasil, etcétera. Por lo tanto, el libro ofrece alternativas y modos de aproximarse a discursos marginalizados o “semiperiféricos” como es el caso de España y Portugal a partir del siglo XVII, según lo enfatiza López Calvo. [End Page 366] Para que los lectores tengan una idea de la rica variedad de artículos que forman parte de este libro, me gustaría aludir al último ensayo de este bien logrado volumen. En “South Reads Western and Eastern East: Second-hand Orientalism in Kiltro, A Chilean Martial Arts Film” el crítico Moisés Park analiza la película chilena Kiltro (2006), producida por el palestino-chileno Marko Zaror (the “Latin Dragon”) y dirigida por Ernesto Díaz Espinoza. En ésta, una de las primeras cintas latinoamericanas sobre las artes marciales, los personajes no son los típicos chinos de Hollywood sino actores chilenos, la mayoría de ellos...

Small can be Beautiful, but Big can be Beautiful Too—And Complementary: Towards Mass/Alternative Tourism Synergy

The ‘small is beautiful’ school of tourism, inspired at least indirectly by Schumacher, has a long pedigree rooted in the Grand Tour and some forms of pilgrimage, but found compelling contemporary expression since the early 1980s under the guise of ‘alternative tourism’ (AT) (Dernoi 1981; Gonsalves 1987; Holden 1984). Perhaps it was the rapidity with which conventional mass tourism appeared to conquer large swaths of the global coastline after World War Two, and the shock of realizing that the promised economic benefits were often accompanied or superseded by a bevy of unwelcomed costs, but the supporters of AT were for the most part subsequently and unfortunately inclined to view the constructs of AT and mass tourism in sharply conflicted black and white terms (Weaver 2006). As an ideal type contrasted with mass tourism, AT emphasized small scales of engagement presumably more appropriate for the small and marginalized communities that were beginning to be incorporated into the global pleasure periphery. This ‘good’ tourism, unlike ‘bad’ mass tourism, would empower local people, celebrate their authentic local culture, and attract small numbers of sensitive visitors whose expenditures were expected to foster linkages rather than leakages, especially in Third World countries or peripheries of developed countries inhabited by indigenous people. An especially popular and resilient manifestation that continues to resonate with government development agencies, NGOs such as Tourism Concern and many academics is ‘community-based tourism’ (CBT) (Murphy 1985), where local residents are invested with control over the planning and management of the sector, and the (presumably equitable) disbursement of benefits, with concomitant benefits for the environment (Sebele 2010). Despite strong levels of continued support in some quarters for CBT and other forms of AT, the actual track record is more ambivalent, as discussed by Harrison. Small can be nasty to the extent that members of small and insular communities are acutely aware from their own perspective of who does and does not benefit ‘fairly’ from such activity. Intersecting family and clan affiliations exacerbate the potential for internal and external conflict, and for elites to consolidate or reinforce their existing power through tourism (Ranck 1987; Reed 1997). Small scales of operation also imply limited bargaining power and exposure, and low levels of tourism-related experience, skill and expertise that increase the probability of poor service standards and visitor dissatisfaction. The desire of some ‘alternative tourists’ to intrude into the private spaces and times of residents is also cited as a salient cost among segments such as backpackers (Ooi and Laing 2010). Highly germane as well is Harrison’s observation that small-scale products are not all created equally, and may include ultra-luxury boutique hotels and ecolodges that grotesquely exaggerate host–guest inequalities of wealth and power.

АКАДЕМИЧЕСКОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ ИМПЕРИЙ: КУДА ТЕКУТ ПОТОКИ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ СТУДЕНЧЕСКОЙ МИГРАЦИИ?

SUMMARY: The article examines structural conditions that determine the direction of international student flows. The influence of two factors is widely recognized in the current discussion on international student mobility. The first one is the economic factor that influences the individual decisions of a student or his/ her family to migrate to a more prosperous country (push–pull argument). The second is derived from world system theory: students from the world periphery seek better education and go to the core countries specializing in information and high-technology production (including education). The article offers a third perspective on international student migration, which is both institutional and historical. The author focuses on the structural connections between sending and receiving countries that support student migration. Methods of network analysis are used to examine UNESCO and Russian official statistics, which show deep and stable channels of student migration. The results suggest that deep migration channels direct international students from former colonies to their respective former imperial centers. A case study of student migration from Kazakhstan to Russia is employed to describe the organization of international student flows on the micro- and meso-levels.