Periodontal Status Of Pregnant Women Research Articles

Detection and Comparison of the Parathyroid Hormone Level with Periodontal Status of Pregnant Women

Detection and Comparison of the Parathyroid Hormone Level with Periodontal Status of Pregnant Women

Salivary matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) as a biomarker of periodontitis in pregnant patients with diabetes.

Pregnancy and diabetes increase the risk of developing pathological conditions in the periodontium. Salivary biomarkers, such as matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), as well as antioxidants can be used as diagnostic indicators in monitoring periodontitis. The aim of the study was to assess the periodontal status of pregnant women with regard to the presence of diabetes. In addition, we aimed to assess antioxidant activity and the level of MMP-9 in saliva in order to establish the optimal noninvasive determinants of periodontitis. The study included 104 pregnant women: 35 patients had gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM); 30 patients had type 1 diabetes (T1D); and 39 patients did not have diabetes (the control group). The physical examination included the assessment of the approximal plaque index (API), the gingival index (GI), bleeding on probing (BOP), the probing pocket depth (PPD), and clinical attachment loss (CAL). In the saliva study, MMP-9 concentration as well as the ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) were measured. The pregnant patients with GDM and T1D had higher GI, BOP, PPD, and CAL scores than the control women (p < 0.0001, p = 0.0040, p = 0.0100, p = 0.0030, and p < 0.0001, p < 0.0009, p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, respectively). The T1D patients had higher API scores as compared to the control women (p = 0.0010). The patients with periodontitis had higher salivary MMP-9 levels than the patients without periodontitis (p = 0.0001). The salivary antioxidant levels and activity were comparable among the study groups. The determinants of periodontitis (p < 0.0001) were MMP-9 concentration (p = 0.0008) and oral hygiene (p = 0.0001). The concentration of MMP-9 was also a useful determiner of the presence of periodontitis (p < 0.0001). In the pregnant women with diabetes, we observed worse gingival conditions, deeper periodontal pockets and greater attachment loss in comparison with the women from the control group. The concentration of MMP-9 in saliva is a good predictor of periodontitis and might be a useful tool for diagnosing periodontitis.

Relationship Between the Periodontal Status of Pregnant Women and the Incidence and Severity of Pre-term and/or Low Birth Weight Deliveries: A Retrospective Observational Case-Control Study.

Literature worldwide has linked periodontitis to preterm births and/or low-birth-weight infants. However, to our knowledge, research on this topic is scarce in India. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) reports that South Asian nations, particularly India, have the highest rates of preterm births and low-birth-weight infants as well as periodontitis due to poor socioeconomic conditions. Overall, 70% of perinatal fatalities result from prematurity and/or low birth weight, which also increases the incidence of morbidity and drives up the cost of postpartum care by a factor of ten. The frequency and severity of the illness may be greater among the Indian population due to their poor socioeconomic status. To lower the mortality rate and the cost of postnatal care, it is necessary to investigate the impact and severity of the effect of periodontal conditions on pregnancy outcomes in India. Following the collection of obstetric and prenatal records from the hospital in compliance with inclusion and exclusion criteria, a sample of 150 pregnant women were chosen from public healthcare clinics for the research. Within three days of delivery following enrolment in the trial, a single physician recorded each subject's periodontal condition using the University of North Carolina-15 (UNC-15) probe under artificial lighting and the Russell periodontal index. The gestational age was calculated based on the latest menstrual cycle, and a medical professional would order an ultrasound if they felt it was essential. The doctor weighed the newborns soon after delivery and in accordance with this prenatal record. The acquired data was analyzed using a suitable statistical analysis technique. The severity of a pregnant woman's periodontal disease was significantly correlated with the infant's birth weight and gestational age. Preterm births and low-birth-weight infants became more prevalent as the severity of the periodontal disease rose. The results demonstrated that periodontal disease in pregnant women may increase the risk of preterm delivery and low birth weight in infants.

The Perceived Oral Health Status, Practices, Knowledge and Periodontal Status of Pregnant Women in a Maternity Hospital in Trinidad

The Perceived Oral Health Status, Practices, Knowledge and Periodontal Status of Pregnant Women in a Maternity Hospital in Trinidad

Periodontal manifestations in pregnant women at the "Vilma Espín" Maternal Home of the Polyclinic November 30

Objective : Clinical and epidemiological characterization of pregnant women with periodontal disease at the “Vilma Espín” Maternal Home, from the “30 de Noviembre” Teaching Polyclinic. Materials and methods: A descriptive and cross-sectional study was carried out in 47 pregnant women with periodontal manifestations in the "Vilma Espín Guillote" Maternity Home, belonging to the "30 de Noviembre" Teaching Polyclinic, in the city of Santiago de Cuba, in the period from June to December 2018, with the objective of identifying the periodontal status of pregnant women and characterizing said prioritized group with periodontal disease in terms of clinical and epidemiological characteristics. The Russell Periodontal Index was used to determine the severity of the periodontal disease and the Simplified Green and Vermillion Oral Hygiene Index to specify the degree of oral hygiene. Results: It was obtained that 38.2% of the pregnant women with gingival disease were in the third trimester of pregnancy. Mild gingivitis was the one that predominated with 65.9% also in the third trimester. In 95.7% of the cases it was located. Conclusions : pregnant women with gingival disease predominated in the third trimester of pregnancy. Mild gingivitis was found in a higher percentage. Poor oral hygiene was present in a high number of pregnant women, which increased with the severity of the disease and the low level of schooling.

Association between maternal periodontal status and ultrasonographic measurement of fetal growth: A longitudinal study

The aim of this prospective cohort study was to investigate the association between intrauterine fetal growth patterns and periodontal status in pregnant women. Fifty-three pregnant women were recruited. Periodontitis was diagnosed based on probing pocket depth and clinical attachment level. Maternal urinary 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine levels and body mass index were recorded. Ultrasonographic measurements of the biparietal diameter (BPD), abdominal circumference (AC), and femur length (FL) were recorded, and estimated fetal weight (EFW) was calculated. In addition, approximation spline curves of BPD, AC, FL, and EFW were obtained throughout the gestation period. Recorded delivery outcomes were gestational age (GA), birth weight and length, sex, placental weight, and umbilical cord length. Forty-four participants (34.1 ± 4.9 years) were analyzed. Mean neonatal birth weight was 2906.0 ± 544.4 g. On multiple regression analysis, birth weight was related with periodontitis (standardized β = −0.21, P = 0.001). For EFW and BPD, the curves of the periodontitis group were located lower than those of the non-periodontitis group, with significant differences after 32 weeks and 20 weeks of GA, respectively. In conclusion, periodontal treatment before conception may be recommended and a good periodontal condition in the early stage of pregnancy at the latest is desirable for infant growth.

The structure of inflammatory periodontal diseases and the dynamics of the periodontal status in pregnant women during the gestational period

Basing on the analysis of 165 pregnant women with confirmed diagnosis of periodontal disease the structure of inflammatory periodontal diseases and periodontal status of pregnant women during gestation has been studied considering the influence of various factors on the dynamics of several periodontal and hygiene indices. The study proved a significant age-related deterioration of the periodontal status of pregnant women due to hormonal changes in the gestational period.

Periodontal health among pregnant women visiting tertiary government hospitals in Patna and its distribution by different background characteristics

Background: To study the association between oral health status and pregnancy in Patna (Bihar). Aims and Objectives: This study aims to examine periodontal status in pregnant women and assess the relationship with parity, socio-economic factors, gestational age, education and oral hygiene behaviour of the women. Materials and Methods: A Hospital based survey was carried out among women attending the antenatal outpatient department in two hospitals, Patna medical college and Nalanda medical college and hospital, to evaluate the periodontal health among pregnant women and its relationship between socio-demographic variables like age, education, income. Periodontal examination was done by CPI probe and oral health status was also recorded using indices (plaque index, by Silness & Loe gingival index, by Loe &Silness, debris index and OHI-S indices by Green &Vermillion) Result: In the present study, of the 365 patients presenting with mild gingivitis, 40.5% were in their 1st trimester, 31.2% in 2nd and 28.2% in their 3rd trimesters. Of the 231 patients with moderate gingivitis, the maximum percentage of patients shifted to the 3rd trimester (42.9%), with 36.21% patients in their 2nd trimester and only 20.8% in their 1st trimester. Keywords: Pregnancy, Gingivitis, and Periodontal disease.

Soft drink consumption and periodontal status in pregnant women.

Periodontal disease is associated with metabolic syndrome, and during pregnancy, it is linked to preeclampsia and preterm birth. We hypothesized that soft drink consumption, which has also been associated with metabolic disorders, may also be linked to periodontal disease. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association between soft drink consumption and periodontal status in pregnancy. This was a cross-sectional study nested in BRISA (Brazilian Ribeirão Preto and São Luís Birth Cohort Studies). Pregnant women (n=1,185) completed a questionnaire and underwent periodontal examination from the 22nd to 25th week of pregnancy. The explanatory variable was the frequency of soft drink consumption (times per week). The outcome was periodontal status measured as the number of teeth with probing depth ≥4mm with bleeding on probing (PD/BOP) or with clinical attachment level ≥4mm (CAL). Means ratio (MR) was estimated using zero-inflated Poisson, adjusted for maternal age and income. The higher tertile of consumption of soft drinks during pregnancy was associated with PD/BOP (MR=1.34; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03 to 1.75); while the highest tertile of diastolic blood pressure was also associated to CAL (MR=1.21; 95% CI 1:07 to 1.35). High soft drink consumption was associated with the number of teeth with PD/BOP in pregnant women, suggesting that beverage consumption is a factor that contributes to the systemic inflammatory burden, which is common to periodontal disease, metabolic syndrome, and adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Características del estado periodontal en gestantes del Hospital Materno Infantil San Pablo de Asunción, Paraguay

Objetivo: Determinar las características del estado periodontal en gestantes que acudieron al Hospital Materno Infantil San Pablo (HMISP) de Asunción, Paraguay en el periodo comprendido entre diciembre del 2015 a febrero del 2016. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional descriptivo de corte transversal a pacientes embarazadas que asistieron a su primera consulta prenatal. Se aplicó una encuesta sobre factores sociodemográficos, hábitos de higiene oral e instrucción de salud bucal por parte del personal de salud. La evaluación del estado periodontal se realizó en una hoja de registro de datos clínicos, que incluyó el índice gingival (IG) de Löe y Silness en dientes del sextante anteroinferior. Resultados: Se evaluaron a 96 pacientes con edades comprendidas entre 15 y 37 años, con una media de 23,8, desviación estándar 5,47. Se evidenció que la gingivitis predominó en las gestantes en un 85,4% (n=82). La gingivitis moderada fue la manifestación más frecuente (49%), tanto en el primer como el tercer trimestre, en tanto que la gingivitis severa se presentó en menor proporción (3,1%). Conclusiones: La gingivitis predominó en las gestantes en un 85,4%, siendo más frecuente la gingivitis moderada en un 49% según lo registrado con el IG de Löe y Silness.

Особливості поширеності та клінічного перебігу генералізованого пародонтиту початкового та І ступенів у вагітних жінок на тлі залізодефіцитної анемії

Summary.The attention of scientists attracts the task of preserving the health of the mother and the fetus in general, as well as studying the oral cavity during pregnancy, in order to prevent the formation of a «dental chroniospermic hearth». The issue of dental morbidity in pregnant women with somatic pathology remains relevant. This is due to many factors, in particular: a significant prevalence of periodontal diseases among the population, an increase in the frequency of extragenital diseases in pregnant women, the influence of infection on the body of the pregnant woman and the fetus. Frequent complications of pregnancy are iron deficiency anemia (IDA), which ranks first among all the complications of the gestation period.The aim of the study – to learn the prevalence and peculiarities of the clinical course of generalized periodontitis of primary and grade I in pregnant women on the background of IDA.Materials and Methods. For solving our tasks, we examined 352 women in the 2nd–3rd trimester of pregnancy at the age of 18–35 years. The original form of generalized periodontitis were observed in 141 individuals with iron deficiency anemia medium and light that formed the core group. The comparison group comprised 98 pregnant women with generalized periodontitis of primary and grade I without concomitant iron deficiency anemia.Results and Discussion. According to research results, the main group generalized periodontitis initial degree met in (43.97±4.18) % of the patients, which was 1.3 times less than in the comparison group. However, the number of cases of generalized periodontitis of the 1st degree in the main group exceeded 1.4 times the similar indicator of the comparison group with values (59.18±4.96) % and (40.82±4.96) % respectively. At the age of 18–26 years, generalized periodontitis of primary level was diagnosed in 1.4 times less than in the surveyed comparison group (48.05±5.69) % vs. (67.92±6.41) %. In the age range of 27–35 years in the main group, generalized periodontitis of initial degree was registered in (39.06±6.10) % of the examined, which was 1.3 times lower than that of the comparison group (48.89±7.45) %. Generalized periodontitis of the degree 1 in patients of the main group aged 18–26 years was recorded in (51.95±5.69)% of the surveyed, which significantly exceeded this index of the comparison group by 1.6 times (32.07±6.41) %. With the increase in age to 27–35 years, the number of cases of generalized periodontitis of the degree 1 in the main group exceeded the similar number of comparison groups in 1.2 times: (60.93±6.10) % and (51.11±7.45) % respectively. In the main group at the age of 18–26, the number of cases of generalized periodontitis degree 1 was insignificantly higher than the number of diagnosed generalized periodontitis of initial degree: (51.95±5.69) % versus (48.05±5.69) %, respectively. However, in the age interval 27–35 years degree generalized periodontitis and generalized periodontitis prevailed entry level 1.6 times. The analysis of objective symptoms of the course of generalized periodontitis in the patients of the study groups showed that in pregnant women with iron deficiency anemia, the clinical picture of GP was significantly more pronounced than in women with uncomplicated pregnancy. In the main group, the expressive (63.12 %) bleeding gums in 1.8 times prevailed in the comparator group (35.71 %). Moderate bleeding in the main group was 1.8 times less (36.88 %) than in the comparison group (64.29 %). 66.67 % of the surveyed main group, against 40.82 % of the comparison group, pointed out the tenderness of the gums. The absence of pain in the gums was noted by 33.33 % of the patients with IDA and 59.18 % of the comparison groups under study. In pregnant women of the main group, severe hyperemia of the gums was 1.5 times more frequent compared to the comparison group (65.25 % versus 43.88 %, respectively). At the same time, a slight redness of gums determined 1.6 times more often in women without pregnancy complications than pregnant women with IDA (56.12 % vs. 34.75 %, respectively).Conclusions. Thus, as a result of the analysis of the parodontium tissue condition found that prevalence, intensity and expressiveness of clinical symptoms of generalized periodontitis were significantly higher in pregnant women compared to women with generalized periodontitis without complications of pregnancy. This fact indicates the negative effect of iron deficiency like physical disease, periodontal status in pregnant women.

Dependence of Premature Births from Periodontal Status of Pregnant Women

Background: Early birth is 37 weeks or less, pregnancy maturity! Clinically active presence, or positive culture of vaginal secretions, means excessive production of cytokines and prostaglandins also encountered in amniotic fluid. Bacterial vaginosis appears with their clinical outbreak in a combination of bacteria. Some of these bacteria are basic members in the creation of bacterial plaque. Objective: The purpose of this study is to find the link between the presence of specific bacteria in the mouth, bacterial vaginosis as one of the causes of premature birth, and the latter. Methods: The study was applied to 30 pregnant women in the burden pathology ward at Fier maternity, divided into two groups. The first group consisting of 20 women in the 2-month period, August-September 2011. The number of women in the ward was 10 days maximum! All women were treated with cortisone and serum IV, magnesium sulphate, antibiotic prophylaxis! Results: 55% of women were under the age of 25 and 45% of women were over the age of 25. The age effect is mentioned for classifying the diseases that causes Actinomyces. Under the age of 25, a teenager and a 25-year-old are chronically ill. The final index was G2! All females were positive for the presence of salicylic acid in saliva and vaginal secretions. Conclusions: Premature birth is a complex process with some gynecological reasons, but in high percentage of cases there is coverage with the presence of infection by Actinomyces Actinomycetemcomitans in the oral cavity, which depending on the age causes two different types of periodontitis with special characteristics.

Periodontal Manifestations in Pregnant Women : Study of 208 pregnancies at the CHU Gabriel Touré, Bamako

Aims: The aims of this study was to investigate the epidemiological characteristics of periodontal disease observed in pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in the Department of Obstetric Gynecology CHU- Gabriel Touré of Bamako.Materials and Methods: We realized a transverse, analytical study based on the observation of the periodontal status of pregnant women over 2 months (May-July 2013), 208 observations identified prenatally. Data were collected from medical records, entered and analyzed using SPSS 19.0 software.Results: We included 189 cases (90, 90 %). The age group most affected was that of 20-29 years (52, 40 %) with a mean age of 26, 88 and extremes ranging from 10 to 45 years. Married women were represented, with 94, 70 % of the cases, they were multigravidae in 71, 00 % of cases. Housewives accounted for 40, 40 %. HIV positive women represented 14, 00 % of the sample. The CPITN index corresponding to the scaling was greater in patients, between 11 weeks and 41 weeks 'gestation.Conclusion: This study shows the high frequency of periodontal disease in pregnant women, hence the importance of partnership between healths professional's reproduction and those of oral cavity.

Periodontal status in Taiwanese pregnant women

Background/purposeFew studies have investigated the periodontal status of Taiwanese pregnant women. This study aimed to investigate the periodontal status of pregnant women and to examine its relation to oral hygiene. Material and methodsThis study randomly recruited 477 pregnant women. Among them, 203 women were in their first trimester. Forty-six women completed the study to the end of their third trimester. We also recruited 160 nonpregnant women as the control group. Clinical periodontal parameters were recorded and included probing pocket depth [PPD (mm)], clinical attachment level [CAL (mm)], gingival index simplified [GI-s (%)], and plaque index [PI (%)]. ResultsThe GI-s of the pregnant group (PG) was higher than that of the control group [CG; (i.e., nonpregnant)], but only the third trimester was statistically significantly different (P<0.001).The full mouth dental PI was higher in the PG than in the CG (P<0.001), particularly in the interproximal areas. The mean PPD was greater in the PG than in the CG (P<0.001) in all tooth areas. The mean CAL was higher in the PG than in the CG (P<0.001), but no difference existed between the different trimesters. The CG had a higher percentage of sites with a shallow PPD, compared to the PG (P<0.001); the PG had a higher percentage of sites with a PPD of 4–6 mm, compared to the CG (P<0.001). Only the PI of the full mouth and lingual tooth surfaces in the third trimester were better than in the first trimester throughout the pregnancy. ConclusionGingival inflammation in pregnant women is positively correlated with the increased deposition of a dental plaque biofilm.

Preventive therapy and periodontal status of pregnant women in Lagos University Teaching Hospital

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Periodontal status in pregnant women in comparison with non-pregnant individuals

Background: Our understanding of pathogenesis of periodontal disease has changed remarkably over a few decades. Rather than being confined to periodontium, periodontal disease may have a wide ranging systemic effects. It is now recognized that it shares most of the common risk factors for diabetes, coronary heart disease preterm low birth weight, miscarriage or early pregnancy loss and preeclampsia. Materials and Methods: The study group comprised of 400 women (200 pregnant women and 200 non-pregnant) with an age range of 18-40 years. Maternal demographic and medical data were collected. Periodontal examinations included: Oral hygiene index (OHI-S), gingival index (GI), pocket probing depth and clinical attachment loss (CAL). Results: The results were analyzed using test of proportion when OHI-S was compared in pregnant women with that of non-pregnant individuals, there was no significant difference in good oral hygiene group ( P = 0.187, Z = 1.32). When the GI index was evaluated, a definite statistical difference was noted in mild, moderate and severe gingivitis (P - 0.000, Z = 0.365; P - 0.00, Z = 4.17; P - 0.000, Z = 0.75). CAL index revealed a statistical difference was observed healthy periodontium, mild, moderate and severe periodontitis in both pregnant and non-pregnant women ( P = −0.000, Z = 3.65; P - 0.000, Z = 5.83; P - 0.001, Z - 3.24; P - 0.000, Z - 6.47). Conclusion: The present study conducted supports the hypothesis that there is a definite correlation between the pregnant women and poor oral hygiene (gingivitis and periodontitis) as compared with the non-pregnant controls.

Gingival status, crevicular fluid tissue‐type plasminogen activator, plasminogen activator inhibitor‐2 levels in pregnancy versus post‐partum

This study was conducted to evaluate a possible link between periodontal status of pregnant women and the plasminogen activator system in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF). GCF samples were obtained from four interproximal sites of anterior teeth in 43 women during the second trimester and also after delivery. Full mouth dental plaque, bleeding on probing (BOP) and probing depth (PD) values were recorded at six sites/tooth in each subject. GCF levels of tissue type plasminogen activator (t-PA) and its inhibitor, plasminogen activator-inhibitor-2 (PAI-2) were determined by ELISA. Data comparisons between pregnancy and post-partum were made by Wilcoxon signed rank test. The number of pockets with a PD>4 mm and total volume of GCF sampled were reduced significantly after delivery (p=0.000 and p=0.013, respectively). No significant differences were detected in GCF concentrations of t-PA or PAI-2 between pregnancy and post-partum. Our results suggest that GCF t-PA and PAI-2 concentrations are not affected by pregnancy. Reductions in PD values and GCF volume following delivery indicate a resolution of oedema in gingival tissues, possibly related to hormonal changes due to the ending of pregnancy.

Periodontal Diseases, Preterm Births, and Low Birth Weight: Findings From a Homogeneous Cohort of Women in Madagascar

Studies on the possible influence of periodontal disease on preterm birth (PB) and/or low birth weight (LBW) remain inconclusive especially due to the difficulty of assessing the numerous pregnancy risk factors. The aim of this study is to compare periodontal parameters in non-smoking pregnant women in Madagascar. A cohort study with 204 pregnant women (mean age: 25.6 years) was conducted in public prenatal care health clinics in Madagascar. Socioeconomic and obstetric information was obtained. Periodontal parameters, such as periodontal probing depth and clinical attachment loss (AL), were recorded during the second semester of pregnancy. The mean gestational age was 37.8 weeks. At delivery, 42 newborns (20.6%) were PBs (<37 weeks) and 22 newborns (10.8%) were of LBW (<2,500 g). Nine (4.4%) newborns were PBs and of LBW (PLBW), and 149 newborns (73%) were of normal birth. The mean plaque index and papillary bleeding index were significantly higher (P <0.05 and P <0.001, respectively) in the PB group than in the normal birth group. Periodontitis (at least three sites from different teeth with clinical AL >or=4 mm) was significantly associated with PB (P <0.001), LBW (P <0.001), and PLBW (P <0.01). The rates of periodontitis were considerably higher in PB (78.6%), LBW (77.3%), and PLBW (77.8%) groups than in the full-term (8.6%), normal weight (16.5%), and normal birth (2.7%) groups. The strong association among periodontitis, PB, and LBW in this study highlights the need to consider the periodontal status of pregnant women in Madagascar.

Relationship between Campylobacter rectus and periodontal status during pregnancy

In a previous study, we showed that the growth of Campylobacter rectus is stimulated by the presence of female sex hormones in the culture medium. In the present study, we examined the relationship between C. rectus levels in the saliva and the periodontal status of pregnant women. Unstimulated whole saliva was collected from 22 pregnant and 15 non-pregnant women. Periodontal pocket depth (PD) and bleeding on probing (BOP) were recorded. A quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed to determine the concentrations of suspected periodontopathogenic bacteria in the saliva samples. In addition, the concentration of estradiol in the saliva samples was measured by enzyme immunoassay. The average age, number of teeth, and total number of bacteria in the saliva of subjects in both groups were similar. The percentage of sites with a PD = 4 mm and the salivary estradiol concentrations were significantly higher in pregnant women than in non-pregnant women. In addition, the percentage of BOP sites and the C. rectus levels in the saliva of the pregnant women tended to be higher than in non-pregnant women, although these differences were not statistically significant. There were positive correlations between C. rectus levels and estradiol concentrations, and between C. rectus levels and the percentage of sites with PD = 4 mm in the pregnant women. These results indicate that C. rectus levels are higher in the oral flora of pregnant women and that this may be associated with increased salivary estradiol concentrations. This may contribute to periodontal disease progression during pregnancy.

The periodontal status of pregnant women and its relationship with socio-demographic and clinical variables.

The aims of this study were to assess the periodontal health and oral hygiene status of pregnant women and non-pregnant controls and to evaluate the effect of socio-demographic and other variables on such periodontal status. A total of 400 women, of whom 200 were pregnant (mean age=30 years, s.e.m.=0.05) and 200 non-pregnant controls (mean age=32 years, s.e.m.=0.05) were chosen at random from four health centres. The clinical parameters used were the Silness and Loe plaque index (Pl.I), Loe and Silness gingival index (GI), probing pocket depth (PPD), probing attachment level (PAL), any relationship to socio-demographic (age, level of education and professional level) and clinical variables (gestation period, previous pregnancy and vomiting during pregnancy) was evaluated. The results showed that pregnant women had significantly higher GI and PPD scores (P < 0.005) but with no statistically significant differences in PAL or Pl.I (P > 0.01) compared with non-pregnant controls. Increased age, lower level of education and non-employment were associated with significantly higher GI and PPD scores (P < 0.01). All these clinical parameters increased in parallel with the increase in the stage of pregnancy, reaching their maximum at the eighth month. Women with previous or multiple pregnancy had statistically significantly higher GI and PPD scores than those who were pregnant for the first time (P < 0.01), but with no statistically significant differences in Pl.I or PAL scores (P > 0.05). Also, women who vomited during pregnancy had significantly higher GI and PPD scores compared with those who did not vomit (P < 0.05). It is concluded that gingival inflammatory symptoms are aggravated during pregnancy and are related to increased age, lower level of education and non-employment. Therefore periodontal preventive programmes are very important for pregnant women.