Reactor Performance Research Articles

Performance of a Solar-Driven Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor for Municipal Wastewater Treatment

The increasing demand for efficient wastewater treatment technologies, driven by global population growth and industrialisation, highlights the necessity for advanced, reliable solutions. This study investigated the efficacy of a slurry photocatalytic membrane reactor (PMR) for the advanced removal of organic pollutants, quantified via chemical oxygen demand (COD), under natural and simulated solar light irradiation. Employing two variants of iron-doped titania as photocatalysts and a polysulfone-based polymeric membrane for the separation process, the investigation showcased COD removal efficiencies ranging from 66–85% under simulated solar light to 52–81% under natural sunlight over a 7 h irradiation period. The overall PMR system demonstrated COD removal efficiencies of 84–95%. The results confirmed the enhanced photocatalytic activity afforded by iron doping and establish solar-powered slurry PMRs as an effective, low-energy, and environmentally friendly alternative for the advanced treatment of municipal wastewater, with the research providing valuable insights into sustainable water management practices.

Performance assessment, through numerical simulation and experimental evaluation, of a thin-film ultraviolet reactor for the processing of fruit juices

Abstract The paper presents a numerical approach to investigate the performance of a thin-film ultraviolet reactor in treating three different fruit juices (apple, orange and pineapple) with UV-C radiation, under six flow rate conditions. Minimum, average and maximum doses were calculated for each configuration, by integrating, over time the irradiance over one thousand different streamlines. The presented approach allows for calculating the dose distribution achieved, thus assessing both the fulfilment of regulatory requirements and the uniformity of the treatment. Experimental tests were finally performed on both apple and orange juice, with a flow rate of 80 L/h. For apple juice, more than 3 Log CFU/mL reductions were obtained on Escherichia coli ATCC 11,229, while, for orange juice, a negligible reduction (0.05 Log CFU/mL) was achieved. These results, according to biodosimetry data from other studies, correspond to UV-C dose distributions that confirm those calculated.

Floating La modified g-C3N4 photocatalytic sponge mesh for sustainable dye degradation under sunlight irradiation

The excellent photocatalyst, g-C3N4, presents separation and regeneration challenges due to its tendency to aggregate in aqueous solutions, which not only increases the cost of practical applications but also represents a significant research hurdle. In this study, we report a simple method to use polyurethane sponge as a carrier to support photocatalyst (La modified g-C3N4, LACN) to form a floating photocatalytic mesh (PS-LACN). The PS-LACN shows an excellent methylene blue (MB) degradation performance in an outdoor reactor under sunlight irradiation. The tests also showed that the PS-LACN was stable and reusable over four cycle times without significant loss of efficiency. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated the low cost of PS-LACN. Taken together, this study provides a simple, economical and sustainable technology for dye wastewater treatment.

Multiscale modeling of non-catalytic gas-solid reactions applied to the hydrogen direct reduction of iron ore in moving-bed reactor

Direct hydrogen reduction (H-DR) is a promising technology for green ironmaking. Given the absence of commercial H-DR data, computational simulation is a powerful tool for engineering and overcoming the complexity of the system. This study develops a multiscale moving-bed reactor model to simulate non-catalytic gas-solid reactions and evaluate parameters at the pellet scale that hierarchically impact the performance at reactor scale. The reactor and solid particles are treated as coupled physical domains, enabling the computation of the solid transformations along both scales. Predictions for H-DR process highlight the substantial supply of H2 molar flow in enhancing reactor performance. A sensitivity multivariate analysis revealed the significant effect of pellet structural characteristics and gas inlet conditions on the process. Increased pellet porosity offers flexibility for process optimization, enabling the use of lower H2 percentages and temperatures. These findings provide valuable insights into optimizing H-DR process, improving energy efficiency, and better H2 utilization.

CFD‐ANN coupling model simulation of gas–solid feeding design for ternary biomass mixtures in bubbling fluidized bed gasifier

AbstractThe performance of continuous feeding fluidized bed reactors is significantly influenced by their design. These reactors can effectively operate with a wide range of biomass mixtures. Therefore, it is imperative to carefully design the gas distributor plate and solid tube inlet to ensure stable fluidization and uniform distribution of fluidizing gas and solid particles within the reactor. This study investigated the impact of gas–solid feeder design in bubbling fluidized bed gasifier for biomass mixtures on system hydrodynamics, employing a computational fluid dynamics–artificial neural network (CFD‐ANN) coupling model to achieve more realistic simulations. A 2k factorial experimental design was adopted to inquire the impact of gas and solid feeding systems. The responses under investigation included the gas–solid mixing index and the solid residence time, both of which hold pivotal roles in specific chemical processes related to biomass utilization in fluidized bed technology. All cases were successfully simulated, and the results uncovered that the position and length of the solid inlet tube wielded a significant influence on reactor performance, particularly concerning solid residence time. Furthermore, the designs of the gas distributor were identified as critical factors capable of enhancing system turbulence and mixing. In summary, the results showed the potential for enhancing reactor performance through the optimization of gas–solid feeding systems and underscored the efficacy of the ANN drag model in simulating continuous biomass gasification systems.

A dynamic model of growth phase of bio-conversion of methane to polyhydroxybutyrate using dynamic flux balance analysis.

Biological conversion of waste methane to biodegradable plastics is a way of reducing their production cost. This study addresses the computational modeling of the growth phase reactor of the process of polyhydroxybutyrate production. The model was used for investigating the effect of gas recycling and inlet gas retention time on the reactor performance. The model was run by the use of a genome-scale metabolic network of Methylocystis hirsuta in a dynamic flux balance analysis framework. The reactor has been modeled for two separate feeding scenarios: a pure methane feed and a biogas feed. The mass transfer coefficient parameter was predicted as a function of superficial gas velocities by the regression of data from published experiments. The results show an increase of removal efficiency by 38% and biomass concentration by 2.8g/L with the increase of gas recycle ratio from 0 to 30 at the empty bed residence time of 60 .

Reactor core design with practical gadolinia burnable absorbers for soluble boron-free operation in the innovative SMR

The development of soluble boron-free (SBF) operation in the innovative Small Modular Reactor (i-SMR) requires effective strategies for managing excess reactivity over extended operational cycles. This paper introduces a practical approach to reactor core design for SBF operation in i-SMR, emphasizing the use of gadolinia burnable absorbers (BA). The study investigates the feasibility of Highly Intensive and Discrete Gadolinia/Alumina Burnable Absorber (HIGA) rods for controlling excess reactivity sustainably. Through comprehensive analysis and simulations, the reactivity behavior with varying quantities of HIGA rods is examined, leading to the development of optimized fuel assembly designs. Furthermore, the integration of HIGA rods with integral gadolinia BA rods is discussed to enhance reactivity control and operational flexibility further. This approach utilizes the spatial self-shielding effect of gadolinia for extended reactivity management, crucial for stable and efficient reactor performance. The paper thoroughly addresses core design considerations, including fuel assembly configurations and control rod patterns, to ensure safety and performance in initial and reload cycles. This research advances the development of SBF operation in i-SMR by offering practical reactivity management solutions.

Multi-physics modelling and performance analysis of an air-core reactor in the framework of solid-state fault current limiters

This study presents a comprehensive multi-physics modelling of an air-core reactor operating within a solid-state fault current limiter. By utilizing an air-core reactor in the solid-state fault current limiter, it is aimed to avoid magnetic saturation and assess a conventional fault current limiting device within a contemporary fault current limiter topology. Within the employed fault current limiter topology, the air-core reactor not only limits fault current during grid faults but also carries nearly the entire network current under normal operational conditions. Therefore, the performance of air-core reactor is investigated through thermal, electromagnetic and electrostatic aspects for normal and fault conditions. A 380 V test prototype is employed to validate the coupling of reactor model and electric circuit dynamics in the simulations. Furthermore, current results of high voltage simulations are supported by PSCAD results to reveal the results accuracy. During the operation of air-core reactor in normal and fault cases, the distribution of heat originating from eddy and resistive losses was examined through convection, radiation and conduction mechanisms. Moreover, the electric field intensities affecting the reactor are obtained for different operating conditions through electrostatic analysis, whereas the electromagnetic analysis reveals the magnetic flux densities and magnetic forces acting on the reactor.

Experimental investigation on the effect of direct contact condensation regime on thermal stratification

Direct contact condensation affects the performance of a small modular reactor with pressure suppression system. Since the heat and mass transfer varies with the condensation regimes as well as steam-water interface shapes, the identification and classification of the condensation regimes are important. The experiment of steam direct contact condensation was carried out and the corresponding condensation regimes were studied. Specifically, the experiment was studied by injecting steam vertically into a wet well with subcooled water. The physical process of steam condensation phenomenon with varying undercooling degree of wet well was recorded by high-speed camera. According to the location of the steam-water interface and the shape of the steam bubble, the four condensation regimes were studied, namely chugging, external necking, spheroidal upward bubble and T-shaped upward bubble. Besides, it is found that thermal stratification occurs in the wet well at low steam mass flux, the influence of each condensation regime on the thermal stratification of wet well was studied. The experimental results show that the internal chugging and external necking cause a large downward circulation of subcooled water, which enhance the flow mixing around the discharge tube and the bottom of the wet well. Consequently, the thermal stratification phenomenon does not happen in those condensation regimes. However, the regimes like spheroidal upward bubble and T-shaped upward bubble cause the upward circulation of subcooled water in wet well, which cause the thermal stratification. The critical Richardson number (Ri) determines the condensation regimes. Furthermore, when the Ri is smaller than 1, the condensation regime is external necking. Besides, when the Ri is greater than 1, the condensation regimes are spheroidal upward bubble and T-shaped upward bubble.

Methanation of syngas from biomass gasification: Small-scale plant design in Aspen Plus

The objective of this study is to investigate the upgrading of low-quality nitrogen-diluted syngas derived from biomass air gasification processes into a methane-rich gas stream. Both the thermodynamic and the kinetic aspects are addressed in the paper. Using the Aspen Plus software, a thermodynamic analysis was conducted; then, different plant designs are simulated and compared, including reactor sizing and performance. The results demonstrate that the upgrading of diluted syngas poses challenges which limit its application to small-scale decentralized systems. It was found that a system comprising of four adiabatic fixed-bed reactors, inter-cooling, and efficient water removal achieves a favorable balance between performance and cost. Operating the system at a pressure of 5 bar is deemed adequate as it reduces the required catalyst mass and prevents solid carbon deposition. Notably, this configuration achieved good results, including a 99.4 % CO conversion, 89.3 % CO2 conversion, and 95.6 % CH4 yield. The final methane molar content reached 26.4 %, with a calorific value of 8.62 MJ/Nm3(STP).

Design of a novel tubular membrane reactor with a middle annular injector for enhancement of dry reforming towards high hydrogen purity: CFD analysis

This study introduces a novel design of a tubular porous membrane catalytic reactor (TPMCR) with a middle annular injector, which aims to improve the performance of a dry reforming of methane (DRM) process. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed for a fundamental configuration and subsequently verified using experimental data. The validated CFD model is utilized to examine the influence of different parameters, such as feed composition, inlet gas temperature and pressure, and injection rate, on the reactor performance. The study findings reveal that the introduction of a secondary gas during the injection process has the potential to regulate the process and positively affect the production rates of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The optimal inlet temperature to attain the highest rate of hydrogen production is determined to be 900 K. The hydrogen selectivity is found to increase from 0.96 to 1.60 with the injection of pure steam when the injection rate is increased from 50 to 500 kg/(m2.s). In addition, the carbon monoxide selectivity is decreased from 6.30 to 2.67. The implementation of a middle annular injector within the proposed TPMCR design offers the potential for enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of chemical reactors. Consequently, the introduced modification leads to more efficient and environmentally friendly chemical processes, specifically in the realms of syngas and hydrogen production through the DRM process, resulting in improved purity levels.

Performance evaluation and metagenomic analysis of sequencing batch reactor under transient 2,4,6-trichlorophenol shock

The transient chlorophenol shock under some emergency conditions might directly affect the pollutant removal of bioreactor. Therefore, the recovery of bioreactor performance after transient chlorophenol shock is a noteworthy issue. In the present research, the performance, antioxidant response, microbial succession and functional genes of sequencing batch reactor (SBR) were evaluated under transient 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) shock. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia nitrogen (NH4+-N) removal efficiencies decreased sharply in the first 4 days after 60 mg/L 2,4,6-TCP shock for 24 h and gradually recovered to normal in the subsequent 8 days. The nitrogen removal rates and their corresponding enzymatic activities rapidly decreased after transient 2,4,6-TCP shock and then gradually increased to normal. The increase of antioxidant enzymatic activity, Cu-Zn SOD genes and Fe-Mn SOD genes contributed to the recovery of SBR performance. The abundance of genes encoding ammonia monooxygenase and hydroxylamine dehydrogenase decreased after transient 2,4,6-TCP shock, including amoA, amoC and nxrA. Thauera, Dechloromonas and Candidatus_Competibacter played key roles in the restorative process, which provided stable abundances of narG, norB , norC and nosZ. The results will deeply understand into the effect of transient 2,4,6-TCP shock on bioreactor performance and provide theoretical basis to build promising recoveries strategy of bioreactor performance.

Multi-resolution analysis of partially-stirred reactor models for subgrid turbulence / chemistry interactions

A multi-resolution analysis (MRA) technique in which coupled sequences of LES simulations are solved on successively coarsened meshes is used to analyze the relative performance of several algebraic partially-stirred reactor (PaSR) subgrid models for turbulent combustion. The test case is a methane-hydrogen bluff-body flame, and the ‘truth solution’ is obtained from a fine-mesh LES that resolves the flow into the dissipative scales. The velocity field from this solution drives the solutions obtained on the underlying coarser meshes, enabling a tight correlation of eddy structures. Conditional distributions of chemical production rate norms and local heat release over a subgrid Reynolds-number / Damköhler sample space are extracted from each coarse-mesh level. The results show that none of the tested PaSR methods accurately predicts the combustion characteristics evidenced from the finest mesh; results improve when coupling with an ‘outer environment’ is included. Optimal forms for the characteristic PaSR time scale and fine-scale volume fraction are regressed from the data and can be modeled effectively using resolved scale information. The use of these forms provides improved results and yields a level of mesh-independence that is not found in the original algebraic PaSR models.

Investigating the characteristics of biomass wastes via particle feeder in downdraft gasifier

Particle feeding plays a crucial role in the gasifier due to its effects on the efficiency and performance metrics of the thermochemical process. Investigating particle size distribution's impact on downdraft gasification reactor performance, this study delves into the significance of feedstock characteristics (moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash contents) during the particle feeding stage. Various biomass wastes (date palm waste, olive pomace and sewage sludge) at diverse compositions and sizes are subjected to empirical determination of mass flow rates (MFR), power ratings, and storage times for each feedstock. The preheating process in the gasifier is considered, employing both an approximation and analytical solution. In addition, the influence of the equivalence ratio (ER) on the syngas yield is analyzed. The collected data reveals that for average particle size of 200 μm, the highest MFR (in g/min) are 0.518 ± 0.033, 7.691 ± 0.415, and 16.111 ± 1.050, for palm wood biomass, olive pomace and sewage sludge, respectively. Smaller particles (80 μm) led to extended storage times. Moreover, the lumped capacitance approximation method consistently underestimates preheating time, with a percentage error of 6.26%–17.08%. Response surface methodology (RSM) optimization analysis provides optimal gasification conditions for palm wood biomass, olive pomace, and sewage sludge with maximum cold gas efficiencies (CGEs) of 58.01%, 63.29%, and 52.27%. The peak conversion was attained at gasification temperatures of 1089.83 °C, 1151.93 °C, and 1102.91 °C for palm wood biomass, olive pomace, and sewage sludge, respectively. In addition, gasification equilibrium model determined optimal gasification temperatures as 1150 °C for palm biomass, 1200 °C for olive pomace, and 1150 °C for sewage sludge with respective syngas efficiencies of 59.62%, 64.13%, and 53.66%. Consequently, the examination of the dosing procedure, preheating dynamics, particle dimensions, ER, storage time, and their combined impacts offer practical insights to effectively control downdraft gasifiers in handling a variety of feedstocks.

Integrated operation and efficiency analysis of CaCO3/CaO in a fixed-bed reactor for thermochemical energy storage

Calcium-based thermochemical energy storage (TCES) has attracted much attention in solar energy utilization and storage. However, the investigations of the CaCO3/CaO system are incomplete and poorly integrated at the reactor scale. In this work, a fixed-bed reactor for calcium looping (CaL) is used to conduct the integrated operation of energy storage and release. The decomposition conversion of CaCO3 in N2 at 850 °C for 8 h is 63.8% and the carbonation conversion of the corresponding decomposition product is 67.2% in CO2 at 750 °C for 4 h. The lower reactor filling increases overall thermal energy storage efficiency but decreases released energy. Furthermore, a simulation model is built to study the key operation parameters that greatly affect reactor performances. According to the orthonormal design, the high calcination temperature and porosity of 0.6–0.7 are key factors to improve both high thermal energy storage efficiency and released energy. The carbonation temperature and thermal conductivity are less important factors than decomposition temperature and porosity, which can be adjusted flexibly to meet the needs of heat utilization and cost reduction. This work provides valuable guidance for optimizing reactor operation and modifying materials to achieve high overall efficiency and released energy in fixed-bed reactors.

Electrocatalytic Degradation of Phenolic Wastewater Using a Zero-Gap Flow-Through Reactor Coupled with a 3D Ti/RuO2-TiO2@Pt Electrode.

In this study, the performance of a zero-gap flow-through reactor with three-dimensional (3D) porous Ti/RuO2-TiO2@Pt anodes was systematically investigated for the electrocatalytic oxidation of phenolic wastewater, considering phenol and 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) as the target pollutants. The optimum parameters for the electrochemical oxidation of phenol and 4-NP were examined. For phenol degradation, at an initial concentration of 50 mg/L, initial pH of 7, NaCl concentration of 10.0 g/L, current density of 10 mA/cm2, and retention time of 30 min, the degradation efficiency achieved was 95.05%, with an energy consumption of 15.39 kWh/kg; meanwhile, for 4-NP, the degradation efficiency was 98.42% and energy consumption was 19.21 kWh/kg (at an initial concentration of 40 mg/L, initial pH of 3, NaCl concentration of 10.0 g/L, current density of 10 mA/cm2, and retention time of 30 min). The electrocatalytic oxidation of phenol and 4-NP conformed to the pseudo-first-order kinetics model, and the k values were 0.2562 min-1 and 0.1736 min-1, respectively, which are 1.7 and 3.6-times higher than those of a conventional electrolyzer. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to verify the intermediates formed during the degradation of phenol or 4-NP and a possible degradation pathway was provided. The extremely narrow electrode distance and the flow-through configuration of the zero-gap flow-through reactor were thought to be essential for its lower energy consumption and higher mass transfer efficiency. The zero-gap flow-through reactor with a novel 3D porous Ti/RuO2-TiO2@Pt electrode is a superior alternative for the treatment of industrial wastewater.

Performance evaluation and optimization of a suspension-type reactor for use in heterogeneous catalytic ozonation

Packed fixed-bed reactors are traditionally used for heterogeneous catalytic ozonation. However, a high solid-to-liquid requirement, poor ozone dissolution, ineffective utilization of catalyst surface area, and production of large amounts of catalyst waste impede application of such reactors. In this study, we designed a suspension catalytic ozonation reactor and compared the performance of this reactor with that of a traditional fixed-bed catalytic ozonation reactor employing oxalic acid (OA) as the target contaminant. Our results showed that total O3 dissolved into the suspension reactor (117–134 mg.L−1) was much higher compared to that measured in the fixed-bed reactor (53 mg.L−1) due to a higher O3(g) interphase mass transfer rate in the suspension reactor. In accordance with the higher O3(g) interphase mass transfer, we observed a much higher proportional OA removal (32 %) compared to that achieved in the fixed-bed reactor (10%) employing an Fe-oxide catalyst supported on Al2O3 (Fe-oxide@Al2O3) in both reactors. Use of a double-layered Cu-Al hydroxide (Cu-Al LDHs) catalyst in the suspension reactor further enhanced the performance with nearly 90 % OA removal observed. Given the superior performance of the suspension reactor, we investigated the impact of operating conditions (catalyst dosage, hydraulic retention time and ozone dosage) employing Cu-Al LDHs as the catalyst. We also developed a mathematical kinetic model to describe the performance of the suspension reactor and, through use of the kinetic model, showed that O3(g) interphase transfer rate was the rate-limiting step in OA removal. Thus, improvement in ozone gas diffuser design is required to improve the performance of the suspension reactor. Overall, the present study demonstrated that suspension reactors were more effective than fixed-bed reactors for oxidation of surface-active organic compounds such as OA due to the higher ozone interphase mass transfer rate and effective utilization of the catalyst surface area that can be achieved. As such, further research on suspension reactor design and development of catalysts suitable for use in suspension reactors should facilitate large-scale application of catalytic ozonation processes by the wastewater treatment industry.

Comparative dynamic optimization study of batch hydrothermal liquefaction of two microalgal strains for economic bio-oil production

This work presents dynamic optimization strategies of batch hydrothermal liquefaction of two microalgal species, Aurantiochytrium sp. KRS101 and Nannochloropsis sp. to optimize the reactor temperature profiles. Three dynamic optimization problems are solved to maximize the endpoint biocrude yield, minimize the final time, and minimize the reactor thermal energy. The biocrude maximization and time minimization problems demonstrated 11% and 6.18% increment in the optimal biocrude yields and reduction of 78.2% and 61.66% in batch times compared to the base cases for the microalgae with higher lipid and protein fractions, respectively. The energy minimization problem revealed a significant reduction in the reactor thermal energies to generate the targeted biocrude yields compared to the biocrude maximization. Therefore, the identified optimal temperature trajectories outperformed the conventional fixed temperature profiles and could improve the overall economics of the batch bio-oil production from the algal-based biorefineries by significantly enhancing the reactor performance.

Olive mill wastewater co-treatment: Effect of (electro)Fenton processes and dilution ratio on moving bed biofilm reactor performance

The treatment of olive mill wastewater (OMW) represents still an open challenge because of its highly polluting load. One of the most affordable methods for small-medium mills is to send OMW to industrial wastewater treatment plants (IWTP). Accordingly, this work explored a strategy consisting of the biological co-treatment of real OMW and simulated urban wastewater by a moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR), with and without (electro)Fenton pre-treatment, to simulate OMW treatment through a multi-barrier approach in an IWTP. The effluent of the MBBR without pre-treatment, despite the long period of operation of 18 months, was in compliance with the limit for total phenols (TPHs) of 0.5 mg/L only at a really low OMW's dilution ratio (DR) (1/4000 (v/v)). The Fenton oxidation (FO) and the electro-assisted Fenton (EAF) processes were investigated as pre-treatment of diluted OMW. FO resulted in good performances in terms of TPHs removal (81%) and improved biodegradability (final BOD5/COD ratio = 0.35) but in poor COD removal (24%). EAF was more effective (COD removal = 41%, TPHs removal = 85%, and final BOD5/COD ratio = 0.40) than FO. Therefore, EAF was finally investigated on undiluted OMW (COD removal = 56%, TPHs removal = 84%, and final BOD5/COD ratio = 0.62) and subsequently co-treated with simulated urban wastewater by MBBR, identifying 1/1000 as the optimal DR. The investigated multi-barrier approach is an interesting option for OMW co-treatment in IWTPs to successfully address the challenge of TPHs degradation and drastically reduce the volume of the biological process unit (4 times lower than MBBR treatment alone).

Characterization and impact of dissolved gases in a high-frequency flow reactor

Addressing the growing demands for sustainable green technology in chemical processes, we aim to develop a novel high-frequency ultrasonic flow reactor that utilizes converting ultrasound waves, resulting in intense localized acoustic pressure fields. Our hypothesis that our design of converging waves will establish a uniform spatial distribution of cavitation activity with high energy density, thereby augmenting the rate of radical formation and significantly enhancing overall reactor performance. To validate the hypothesis, KI and terephthalic acid dosimetry were performed. A comprehensive calorimetric study was employed for acoustic power, yielding valuable insight into the energy dynamics of the system. Furthermore, our research systematically assesses the impact of dissolved gases and varying flow rates on reactor performance. Notably, we observe that dissolved gases in the reaction medium exert a substantial influence on reactor efficiency. Additionally, an increased flow rate beyond the optimum decelerates hydroxyl radical generation due to a lower residence time. The detailed characterization, facilitated by dosimetry techniques, unveils the potential of the sonochemical reactor for industrial applications.