Tire Performance Research Articles

Advancements in Finite Element Analysis for Tire Performance: A Comprehensive Review

Tires are important components of vehicles and the force between the vehicle and the ground is transmitted through the tires. So, they have a significant effect on the vehicle’s performance such as ride, traction, braking, and handling. Traditional tire design is mainly based on theoretical design, which is heavy in workload, long in time consumption, high in cost, and low in accuracy, and is difficult to fulfill the demands of fast expansion of the tire industry. With the advancement of finite element analysis (FEA), finite element simulation models have been widely used in tire mechanics research to predict tire behavior, to refine design of tires and improve tire safety, performance, and durability. This comprehensive review presents recent developments in finite element technology which have high potential for application to tire failures and better understanding of modeling needs of tires.

Rolling Resistance Evaluation of Pavements Using Embedded Transducers on a Semi-Trailer Suspension.

Road agency initiatives to reduce traffic-related greenhouse gas emissions are limited by the inability of current experimental methods to assess pavement impacts on vehicle energy consumption. This study addresses this by examining the rolling resistance of a semi-trailer suspension under highway conditions using a precise measurement system with embedded transducers. Data were collected over 174 km of highway, covering various pavement types under mild summer conditions. The analysis revealed notable differences in rolling resistance due to pavement characteristics, with more pronounced variations observed within pavement types than between them. For instance, geographically consecutive jointed rigid pavements showed a 34% variation in rolling resistance, likely correlated with harmonic excitations generated by slab presence, while flexible pavements exhibited up to a 21% variation under similar tire operating conditions. Composite pavements generally performed the worst, possibly due to interactions between bituminous materials and older cement-based foundations. The study also highlighted the critical role of tire operating conditions, showing a decrease of 0.09 kg/tonne in rolling resistance for every 1 °C increase in temperature. This research shows that precisely measuring the rolling resistance (±0.1 kg/tonne) in situ for heavy vehicles is feasible and underscores the need for additional data in diverse weather scenarios to better align laboratory results with on-road realities.

Nanocomposites in Tire Development – Benefits, Challenges, and the Role of Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene

In the rapidly evolving automotive industry, enhancing vehicle performance and sustainability through innovative materials is paramount. Nanocomposite materials, incorporating nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and silica, have emerged as key enablers in redefining tire technology with improved durability, efficiency, and environmental impact. This review discusses the integration of these nanocomposites into tire manufacturing, emphasizing their role in enhancing mechanical properties, wear resistance, and rolling efficiency while reducing environmental footprints. Challenges such as dispersion uniformity within the rubber matrix and economic considerations due to high material costs are examined, alongside future research directions aimed at scalability and cost reduction. The paper predicts a significant increase in the adoption of nanocomposite tires, driven by technological advances and the shift toward sustainable manufacturing practices. By detailing the synergistic effects of nanocomposites, this review highlights their potential to revolutionize tire performance and contribute to the next generation of green automotive technologies.

Characterization of liquid-thickness distribution in micropores on elastic surface under sliding and pressurizing conditions.

To improve the performance of studless tires on ice surfaces, the mechanism of liquid film removal must be elucidated. In this study, an experimental system is developed to simulate the running conditions of a studless tire, and the microscopic liquid film flow generated between the rubber surface and glass is observed to evaluate the liquid thickness distribution. Liquid film removal by micropores on foamed rubber samples is investigated by visualizing the liquid thickness in the micropores. The proposed system enables variations in the pressure and sliding velocity between the rubber and glass. The liquid thickness in the micropores is measured using laser-induced fluorescence, and the effects of pressure and sliding velocity on the thickness are examined. Water penetrates the micropores on the rubber sample surface, and different liquid thicknesses are obtained for each pore. The amount of liquid penetrating the pores is affected to a greater extent by the sliding velocity than by the pressure. Therefore, liquid penetration is more strongly influenced by the hydrodynamic effect of the increasing inertia of the liquid under high sliding velocities than by the elastic deformation of the pore.

NITROGEN-CONTAINING SILANE COUPLING AGENTS: SYNTHESIS AND STRUCTURE EFFECT ON TIRE PERFORMANCE OF SILICA/SSBR/BR COMPOSITES

ABSTRACT We report synthesis of nitrogen-containing silane coupling agents (N-SCAs) and their use in a 1:1 mixture by weight with bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide preparation of silica/solution SBR (SSBR)/BR composites. These N-SCAs contain in their structures, inter alia, a tertiary amine center (N1, N2), a carbamate (N3), or a urea (N4) group. In addition, N1, N3, and N4 were equipped with allyl side arms to increase the hydrophobization effect of silica particle as well as to achieve a balance between the filler–filler and filler–matrix networks being formed. By contrast, N2 consists of glycidyl side arms that contribute to the filler–filler interaction even more. The silica/SSBR/BR blends and subsequent vulcanizates were prepared and then thoroughly investigated via dynamic mechanical analysis, rubber process analysis, and tensile testing. The composite based on N1 (V/N1) exhibited exceptionally great tensile strength, abrasion resistance, and winter traction, accompanied by soft hysteresis. Therefore, N1 has potential applications in preparation of winter tire tread materials.

Determination of rates of occurrence for hydroplaning events with naturalistic driving data

Introduction: The degree to which hydroplaning occurs in real-world conditions is not entirely known. Naturalistic driving data can be helpful in addressing some of the limitations of existing data sources related to the incidence of hydroplaning. Method: Data from the Second Strategic Highway Research Program Naturalistic Driving Study were leveraged to estimate the incidence of hydroplaning. Two hydroplaning detection algorithms were used for candidate hydroplaning event generation. Hard braking events were also identified and analyzed as normative comparisons to the hydroplaning events. Results: A total of 1,141 hydroplaning events were found in the naturalistic driving data and utilized for analysis, including 650 hydroplaning events that were unnoticeable by the driver based on lack of observable reactions, 13 events that were deemed to be of “critical” severity, and only 3 events that resulted in crash events during more than 30 million miles of driving. Hard braking events occurred nearly four times more often, and at comparatively lower speeds, than hydroplaning events. Observable driver reactions also differed between event types. For example, more drivers changed their posture after a hydroplaning event than after a hard braking event and drivers maintained both hands on the wheel at higher rates after experiencing a hydroplaning event than after a hard braking event. Suspension of secondary tasks during hard braking and hydroplaning events was also observed. Conclusions: Overall, these findings suggest that drivers perceive hydroplaning events as more harmful than hard braking events, despite the large discrepancy and incompatibility in how often these driving situations lead to vehicular crashes. Practical application: The findings of this research will provide vehicle and tire designers with empirical data that quantifies the important tradeoffs they must make in balancing vehicle and tire performance in wet and dry environments, and in tradeoffs related to tire wear performance and grip.

Study on the influence of material hardness on the performance of V-shaped non-pneumatic tyres

Material selection is a crucial factor in the design of non-pneumatic tyres (NPT). Most NPTs are integrally manufactured using polyurethane materials for the supports, the inner ring, and the outer ring. It is evident that designing different components with varying material hardness will have distinct impacts on NPT performance. To study the influence of material hardness on the performance of V-shaped non-pneumatic tyres (VS-NPT), we developed finite element models of VS-NPTs with different TPU materials. To validate the finite element models, we manufactured tyres with three different hardness levels and conducted performance tests. Based on this model, a design concept is proposed where different components use materials with varying hardness levels. To elucidate how material hardness affects VS-NPT performance, the Taguchi method was used for analysis. The results reveal that increased material hardness leads to higher triaxial forces and triaxial stiffness in integrally designed VS-NPTs. Regardless of variations in the structural parameters of existing VS-NPTs, the spoke material has a significant impact on triaxial stiffness and contact area. When the spoke thickness exceeds 7.3 mm, the tread material predominantly affects the contact area.

Finite element modeling and analysis of tire creep test

Abstract The tire is one of the most complex components of the vehicle, which justifies strict standards and regulations set by governments worldwide to ensure the performance, durability, and reliability of tires approved for use in the transport sector. Among these requirements, tire durability testing involves the assessment of short-and long-term tire response to determine optimum conditions of use and service life. Therefore, this paper focuses on the creep performance of tires using the finite element method in ABAQUS. As a case study, a selected tire with visco-hyperelastic rubber compounds and linear elastic reinforcements is subjected to a constant prescribed force for a period of time, and the resulting strain evolution is recorded till the release of the applied load. Several parameters are accounted for, such as the inflation pressure, material characteristic times, and load amplitude. The post-processing of results enabled the prediction of the overall creep response of the tire over time with respect to the prescribed load. The knowledge gained in this study can be exploited to predict tire failure caused by excessive strain and pinpoint the areas of the tire that are the most exposed to creep failure.

Temperature-dependent evolution of synthetic coal-derived graphite fillers and their reinforcement in styrene butadiene rubber composites

This study investigated the structural evolution of synthetic coal-derived graphite (SCG), produced from anthracite through high-temperature treatments ranging from 1000 to 2900 °C, and its reinforcement potential in styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) composites. Upon heating the anthracite to 2000 °C, We observed a gradual structural transformation from an amorphous carbon structure with mixed sp2-sp3 bonding to an ordered sp2-bonded nano-sized graphitic structure. This transformation was accompanied by the evaporation of heteroatom functional groups, an increase in high surface energy site as well as micropore and void structures, and enhanced hydrophobic surface property. Beyond 2000 °C, a flake-like graphite with a larger particle size (average lateral size >10 μm) was gradually formed through lateral and vertical crystalline growth mechanisms. The reinforcing potential of SCG fillers was revealed by incorporating them into SBR and evaluating the properties of the resulting composites. It was found that the tensile strength and 300 % tensile modulus initially enhanced with SCG fillers treated up to 2000 °C, but decreased for fillers treated at 2300 and 2900 °C. On the other hand, storage modulus, tear resistance, and gas permeability consistently improved with fillers treated at higher temperatures. These findings highlight the relationship between the temperature-induced structural evolution of SCG fillers and their reinforcement performance in SBR composites, offering valuable insights for industrial rubber applications, particularly enhancing the performance and sustainability of automotive tire.

Numerical Analysis of Terrain Variabilities and Their Impact on the Traction Performance of Agricultural Tire

This study uses numerical analysis to examine how terrain variability affects agricultural tire traction performance, utilizing ANSYS simulations and the Wong and Preston-Thomas tire model. Tractor tire performance was evaluated across ten different clay soils with varying mechanical properties. The ANSYS simulations modeled tire-soil interactions, and the Wong and Preston-Thomas model predicted traction performance based on stress data. Results showed notable variations in thrust, drawbar pull, and motion resistance, with certain soils delivering better traction. The study offers insights for optimizing tire design to improve vehicle productivity on diverse terrains. Keywords: Wong and Preston-Thomas tire model, numerical analysis, traction performance, ANSYS simulation, clay soil parameters, tire-soil interaction.

GRAPHENE AS AN ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIOZONANT IN TIRE SIDEWALL COMPOUNDS

ABSTRACT Tire sidewalls have an important function in achieving optimized tire performance. The sidewall compound must show good abrasion resistance, aging resistance, and tear strength; low hysteresis and minimal contribution to whole tire rolling resistance; and good adhesion to adjacent components in the tire. In addition, in both the original equipment market and the premium performance market, appearance is of considerable importance. The current system of waxes, antioxidants, and phenyl diamine antiozonants is very effective in meeting the need of the tire end user. However, recent concerns centered on the environmental impact of N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine, specifically N-(1,3-dimetylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine, and staining and discoloration of the tire sidewall surface raise issues that should be addressed. Specialized grades of graphene can offer a mechanism by which tire appearance and environmental concerns can be overcome. Pristine graphene can improve compound resistance of ozonolysis and oxidation by replacing the current antiozonants and antioxidants used in tire compounds; improve tire sidewall appearance; and improve tire sidewall resistance to scuffing, abrasion, and tearing.

Effect of Electrolytes on Performance of Tire Derived Carbon for Sodium-Ion Batteries

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have recently become prominent in the battery ecosystem due to their low cost and use of earth abundant materials such as Sodium, Manganese, Aluminum, Iron, and Prussian blue (iron cyanide). [1] Graphite is the standard anode used for LIBs but cannot be used in SIBs due to interlayer distance being too small to accommodate Na+ ion. Hard carbons are suitable candidates for SIB due to their low cost, low working potential, high capacity, and ability to be synthesized at lower pyrolysis temperatures. In our past work we have reported a low-cost, scalable waste tire-derived carbon as an anode for SIBs [2]. In this work we test the tire derived carbon with 6 different electrolytes and understand the impact each has on the performance. The best electrolyte was found to be sodium hexafluorophosphate in ethylene carbonate (EC)–ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) (NaPF6-EC/EMC) which showed a capacity of 108 mAh/g after 200 cycles at charge/discharge rate of C/3. The initial columbic efficiency (ICE) was found to be 52% and to mitigate this problem we tried a scalable contact pre-sodiation method. The pre-sodiation method showed high initial columbic efficiency drastically improving capacity retention of the battery.

Thermo-micromechanical finite element modelling of tyre–pavement interaction under UAE environmental conditions

ABSTRACT This work presents a finite element model of the thermo-mechanical behaviour of tyre–pavement interaction, focusing on the effects of temperature variations in the UAE on skid resistance under various tyre operating conditions. The pavement is modelled as multiple layers to account for the stiffness contribution of each layer. The top asphalt layer is modelled at a microscale level to consider its various constituents such as air voids, aggregates and binder. Moreover, the model accounts for the viscoelastic properties of tyre and pavement, considering their dependence on time and temperature. The finite element simulations of a rolling tyre over the pavement have been carried out under different tyre operating conditions and various temperature cases reflecting the winter, spring, and summer seasons in the UAE. The simulation results show that the maximum level of skid resistance occurs during the winter season and thereafter drops by a significant amount during the summer. This research provides good insights about the seasonal variation of skid resistance in the UAE, which enhances road safety.

A Novel Tire and Road Testing Bench for Modern Automotive Needs

The automotive industry is currently transforming, primarily due to the rise of electric and hybrid vehicle technologies and the need to reduce vehicle mass and energy losses to decrease consumption, pollution, and raw material usage. Additionally, road surface manufacturers emphasize improving pavement durability and reducing rolling noise. This necessitates precise load condition definitions and drives the need for reliable wheel testing benches. Many current benches use abrasive-coated rollers or synthetic tapes, but devices capable of testing on actual road surfaces are rare. In this work, a novel device for testing tire-pavement interaction is proposed. The system features a cart moving along a closed-track platform, ensuring test repeatability and enabling structural durability tests on uneven surfaces with installed obstacles. The cart is equipped with a cantilever arm capable of supporting either a testing wheel with customizable dimensions and kinematic parameters or a tire integrated with a complete suspension system, moving along a customizable pavement surface. The system includes actuators and sensors for applying vertical loads and adjusting the alignment of the testing wheel (slip angle, camber angle, etc.), allowing the characterization of tire behavior such as wear, fatigue, rolling noise, and rolling resistance. Multibody simulations were performed to evaluate the bench’s feasibility in terms of kinematics, power requirements, and structural loads. Results confirmed how this novel test bench represents a promising advancement in tire testing capabilities, enabling comprehensive studies on tire performance, noise reduction, and the structural dynamics of vehicle subsystems.

Temperature Measurements at Tyre Tread Rubber on Sandpaper Oscillatory Sliding Contacts Using Acicular Grindable Thermocouples

The tribological performance of tyre–road contacts depends crucially on the contact temperature. This study investigates the reliability and accuracy of acicular grindable thermocouples possessing an original needle-shaped wearable part as applied to measuring temperature at the oscillatory sliding contact between a rubber tyre tread sample and a sandpaper. A linear oscillatory tribometer is used to imitate the sliding phase of tyre–road contact under mild friction conditions. It is shown that the acicular grindable thermocouple measurements are generally test–retest repeatable. Moreover, the thermocouple signal becomes more stable with increasing contact pressure. Compared to the conventional thermocouple technique, the acicular grindable thermocouple overestimates temperature at the rubber friction surface by about 23% due to involvements of its wearable part in friction with the sandpaper. The findings suggest an expansion of the acicular grindable thermocouple technique to full-scale experiments with tyres on the road.

Comparative Analysis of Non-Pneumatic Tire Spoke Designs for Off-Road Applications: A Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics Perspective

This study explores the development of a terramechanics-based model for non-pneumatic tire–terrain interaction, focusing on different spoke designs. The research investigates how four spoke shapes (honeycomb, modified honeycomb, re-entrant honeycomb, and straight spokes) affect non-pneumatic tire performance in off-road conditions. Using the finite element method (FEM) to model non-pneumatic tires, and smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) to model dry, loose soil, simulations were conducted to replicate real-world loading conditions. This study utilizes virtual environment solution finite element analysis software to examine the interaction between a non-pneumatic tire and dry, loose soil, with a focus on calculating longitudinal and vertical forces. These forces play a pivotal role in determining the motion resistance coefficient. The results show distinct variations in the motion-resistance coefficients among the spoke designs on dry, loose soil. This analysis helps to identify the spoke configurations that optimize energy efficiency and fuel consumption. By comparing and evaluating the four spoke designs, this study shows the effect of spoke design on tire motion resistance. This study concluded that the modified honeycomb spoke design is the most stable and the least sensitive to operating conditions.

Computational modelling of tyre behavior on concrete and sandy soil surfaces using solid works software

Tyres are integral components of vehicles, crucial for controlling movement, supporting vehicle weight, and providing traction. Consequently, there's a growing need for accurate tyre modelling to optimize performance under varying conditions. While extensive literature exists on tyre-soil interaction, information is scarce regarding tyre behaviour across different soil types. This study aims to address this gap by employing computational modelling techniques to analyse tyre behaviour on two distinct surfaces: concrete and sandy soil. Utilizing SolidWorks software, a comprehensive investigation was conducted to evaluate tyre performance under varying road conditions. The study focused on analysing shear forces, soil resistances, and partial soil resistant forces exerted on the tyres. The findings indicate that tyres exhibit superior performance on concrete surfaces compared to sandy soil. The computational simulations predicted shear forces of 0.6 kN, soil resistances of 0.2 kN, and partial soil resistant forces of 0.25 kN for the concrete surfaces. These results were notably higher than those observed on sandy soil surfaces. This study sheds light on the intricate dynamics of tyre behaviour under different road conditions and underscores the importance of computational modelling in understanding and optimizing tyre performance. The insights gained from this research have significant implications for vehicle design, road engineering, and the development of more efficient and durable tyres tailored to specific environmental conditions.

Explainable machine learning models for defects detection in industrial processes

Machine learning algorithms in non-linear pattern recognition for defect detection in manufacturing processes are increasingly prevalent in the context of Industry 4.0. This scenario enables factories to develop methodologies for monitoring and controlling the quality of their products, obtaining better operational efficiency indicators, and offering increasingly competitive products in the market. Explainable Artificial Intelligence can facilitate understanding how the models make decisions and assist in tracking anomaly points. This paper proposes an explainability framework for machine learning models in defect detection. This work applied the multinational industry’s approach to the tire manufacturing process. Models such as random forest, gradient boosting decision tree, light gradient boosting machine, logistic regression, support vector machine, and multi-layer perceptron were considered to evaluate the performance of tires in compliance with production standards. Statistical methodologies had to be adopted to deal with the small number of samples training the machine learning models. The random forest and logistic regression models achieved the best performances with an accuracy of 92% and 96%, respectively. The Local Interpretable Model-Agnostic Explanations and SHapley Additive exPlanations methods were used to identify the relevant process variables. The approach presents the global and local interpretations of the results, allowing for a deeper understanding of how process variables discriminate the fault. The proposed framework determines reference values for each selected process variable for tire manufacturing in compliance with quality standards. This approach provides a relevant tool for quality control management in tire manufacturing industries.

Prediction of rolling resistance and wheel force for a passenger car tire: A comparative study on the use of different material models and numerical approaches

In this research, the characteristics of tire-road interaction of a 185/65R14 88H passenger car tire are investigated using the Finite Element Method in Abaqus commercial software. Moreover, the effect of various material models on tire performance is studied by implementing Visco-Hyperelastic, Parallel Rheological Framework, and Mullins effect. The novelty of this research is devoted to the development of the complex material models particularly considering the Mullins effect of the rubber compounds in the tire structure for the load-displacement criteria. For this purpose, a tire finite element model was generated using Abaqus/Standard command line in two different methods including an Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian formulation for steady state rolling and implementing a pure Lagrangian approach for the transient dynamic analysis carried out implicit and explicit process respectively. Rolling resistance force was computed according to ISO 28580 with 210 kPa inflation pressure and 4155 N vertical load. The footprint test results were extracted in both static and transient dynamic analyses. Additionally, the wheel reaction force was predicted using an indirect method by extracting the tire-terrain contact patch reaction force in Abaqus/Explicit to observe the effect of the material convection along with stress softening phenomena of the rubber compounds of tire structure. In the post-processing analysis, the wheel reaction was filtered by implementing SAE60 filter to reduce the numerical noise in the final response.

Characterization of curing status of commercial tire compounds with vein graphite powder and its particle sizes—Experimental and computational study

AbstractThe use of solid tires in demanding industrial applications, subjected to substantial mechanical loads, poses significant challenges due to heat generation from hysteresis and tread friction. Managing this heat is crucial to mitigate the risk of tire blowouts and layer separation. This research investigates the impact of introducing vein graphite powder, varying in particle size, into a commercially used solid tire compound, both experimentally and computationally. The research findings presented in this paper reveal substantial changes in thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, rate constant, induction time, and the order of reaction in solid tires. Contemporary industry trends involve predictive methods for monitoring the curing process in tire manufacturing. A tire curing simulation model based on finite (FE) element analysis is developed. FE modeling is favored due to its accuracy and adaptability, especially when dealing with the intricate geometry and multi‐layered, multi‐compound structure of tires. The complex interplay between heat transfer and curing processes is effectively addressed using user subroutines (UMATHT) in commercial FE software like ABAQUS. In this analysis, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, order of reaction, rate constant, and induction time of the commercial tire compound are considered as temperature‐dependent variables. The computational model not only demonstrates its potential to significantly enhance the efficiency and quality of tire manufacturing processes but also contributes to a deeper understanding of the curing behavior of graphite powder‐based solid tire compounds. Consequently, it provides a valuable tool for optimizing tire manufacturing procedures and ensuring the safe and reliable performance of solid tires under demanding operational conditions. This research bridges the gap between the traditional commercial tire compound and the use of vein graphite powder in tire manufacturing and advanced computational methods, facilitating improvements in tire quality and safety.