Young Children's Performance Research Articles

Improving Mathematics Learning of Kindergarten Students Through Computer-Assisted Instruction

This study evaluated the effects of a mathematics software program, the Building Blocks software suite, on young children's mathematics performance. Participants included 247 Kindergartners from 37 classrooms in 9 schools located in low-income communities. Children within classrooms were randomly assigned to receive 21 weeks of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in mathematics with Building Blocks or in literacy with Earobics Step 1. Children in the Building Blocks condition evidenced higher posttest scores on tests of numeracy and Applied Problems after controlling for beginning-of-year numeracy scores and classroom nesting. These findings, together with a review of earlier CAI, provide guidance for future work on CAI aiming to improve mathematics performance of children from low-income backgrounds.

Common mechanisms in intelligence and development: A study of ability profiles in mental age-matched primary school children

Background and aimsWe examine the relationship between individual differences and cognitive development in order to address the question of whether variability in each might be due to common mechanisms. In two experiments, we compare the cognitive profiles of groups of younger and older children matched on overall mental age (MA) using standard tests of intelligence (British Abilities Scales-II; BAS-II, and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd edition; WISC-III). ResultsIn both experiments, MANOVAs revealed few differences in the profiles of younger and older MA-matched children. In Experiment 1, no reliable differences were found on the six BAS-II core scales, and only one group difference was found on the supplementary, Speed of Processing diagnostic test, where the older children outperformed the younger children. In Experiment 2, analyses of the 10 core scales of the WISC-III revealed two group differences. These were on Coding, where the younger children's performance was superior to the older children, and on Arithmetic, where the older children outperformed the younger children. ConclusionsThe degree of similarity between cognitive profiles of younger and older MA-matched groups suggests that a common mechanism may indeed underlie variability in individual differences and development. The findings further suggest that children of different ages, who are of the same overall ability level, are at the same developmental and intellectual level. However, further research is needed to determine just how similar ability-matched children remain over the course of development.

Usefulness of interferon-γ release assay for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in young children.

PurposeLatent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in young children may progress to severe active tuberculosis (TB) disease and serve as a reservoir for future transmission of TB disease. There are limited data on interferon-γ release assay (IGRA) performance in young children, which our research aims to address by investigating the usefulness of IGRA for the diagnosis of LTBI.MethodsWe performed a tuberculin skin test (TST) and IGRA on children who were younger than 18 years and were admitted to Chung-Ang University Hospital during May 2011–June 2015. Blood samples for IGRA were collected, processed, and interpreted according to manufacturer protocol.ResultsAmong 149 children, 31 (20.8%) and 10 (6.7%) were diagnosed with LTBI and active pulmonary TB, respectively. In subjects lacking contact history with active TB patients, TST and IGRA results were positive in 41.4% (29 of 70) and 12.9% (9 of 70) subjects, respectively. The agreement (kappa) of TST and IGRA was 0.123. The control group, consisting of non-TB-infected subjects, showed no correlation between age and changes in interferon-γ concentration after nil antigen, TB-specific antigen, or mitogen stimulation in IGRAs (P=0.384, P=0.176, and P=0.077, respectively). In serial IGRAs, interferon-γ response to TB antigen increased in IGRA-positive LTBI subjects, but did not change considerably in initially IGRA-negative LTBI or control subjects.ConclusionThe lack of decrease in interferon-γ response in young children indicates that IGRA could be considered for this age group. Serial IGRA tests might accurately diagnose LTBI in children lacking contact history with active TB patients.

Interferon gamma inducible protein-10 in the diagnosis of paediatric tuberculosis infection in a low TB incidence country.

To assess interferon-gamma inducible protein 10 (IP-10) as a diagnostic marker for tuberculous infection in children, particularly in relation to its differential diagnostic performance in young children. A case-control study was conducted among 161 children and adolescents (mean age 6.3 years ± standard deviation 1.7; males n = 79, 49%). Fifty-four (33.5%) had active TB, 53 (33%) had latent tuberculous infection (LTBI), and 54 (33.5%) were non-LTBI controls. Unstimulated IP-10 levels did not differ between groups (P > 0.05 for all comparisons). TB-specific antigen stimulated IP-10 levels were more profoundly increased in infected groups than in controls (P < 0.001 for all comparisons). None of the IP-10-based diagnostic indexes demonstrated the ability to discriminate active disease from LTBI. A value of IP-10 ⩾ 1222 pg/ml had 83.3% sensitivity, 79.6% specificity, 80.4% positive predictive value and 82.7% negative predictive value for the diagnosis of LTBI. IP-10 based indexes demonstrated a trend towards better performance in the population group aged <5 years. The IP-10 assay could be useful in improving the diagnosis of LTBI in patients aged <5 years in combination with existing interferon-gamma release assays.

Exploring young children's performance on and acceptance of an educational scenario-based digital game for teaching route-planning strategies: a case study

Researchers suggest that game-based learning (GBL) can be used to facilitate mathematics learning. However, empirical GBL research that targets young children is still limited. The purposes of the study is to develop a scenario-based digital game to promote children's route-planning ability, to empirically explore children's learning performance in route planning through the game, and to probe children's technology acceptance of the game. A total of 71 children participated in the study, and both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used, including an interview analysis as well as performance and content analyses of learners’ route-planning tasks. The findings showed that the game had a positive effect on children's learning of route-planning strategies, that children's route-planning strategies were improved with the support of the game, and that children demonstrated high technology acceptance toward the game. This study may be of importance in offering insight into children's GBL.

Impact of Self-Regulation Skills on Academic Performance of Young Children in Private Schools of Karachi

This research aimed to explore if self-regulation skills had any effect&lt;br /&gt;on the academic outcomes of young children in private schools of&lt;br /&gt;Karachi, Pakistan. Quantitative research method was used to&lt;br /&gt;determine the impact of self-regulation upon the academic outcome of&lt;br /&gt;young children by utilizing Early School Self-Regulation Scale-Care Giver&lt;br /&gt;Version (Bhamani, 2012).The sample size consisted of randomly&lt;br /&gt;chosen 210 children, studying in grades 1 and 2 from seven different&lt;br /&gt;private schools in Karachi. The results of the research show that selfregulation&lt;br /&gt;skills had a significant impact on the academic outcome of&lt;br /&gt;young children in private schools of Karachi, b = -6.3, t (198) = 0.693,&lt;br /&gt;p &amp;lt; .01. Self-regulation skills also explained a significant proportion of&lt;br /&gt;variance in students grades, R2 = .397, F (1, 198) = 130.536, p &amp;lt; .01.

Assessing Young Children's Number Magnitude Representation: A Comparison Between Novel and Conventional Tasks

Previously, researchers have relied on asking young children to plot a given number on a 0-to-10 number line to assess their mental representation of numbers 1 to 9. However, such a (“conventional”) number-to-position (N-P) task may underestimate the accuracy of young children's magnitude estimates and misrepresent the nature of their number representation. The purpose of this study was to compare young children's performance on the conventional N-P task and a “modified” N-P task that is more consistent with a discrete-quantity view of number and with measures of theoretically related mathematical competencies. Participants (n = 45), ranging in age from 4;0 to 6;0, were administered both versions of the N-P task twice during 4 sessions in 1 of 2 randomly assigned and counterbalanced orders. Between and within conditions, children were significantly more accurate on the modified version than on the conventional task. The results indicate that the conventional task, in particular, may be confusing and that several simple modifications can make it more understandable for young children. However, when performance on theoretically related number tasks is taken into account, both the conventional and the modified N-P tasks appeared to underestimate competence.

The interrelation between sensorimotor abilities, cognitive performance and individual EEG alpha peak frequency in young children

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to identify the interrelation between sensorimotor abilities, cognitive performance and individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF), an EEG marker of global architectural and functional properties of the human brain, in healthy preschool children. Methods25 participants completed a one minute eyes-closed EEG recording, two cognitive tests assessing processing speed and visual working memory and a sensorimotor test battery. ResultsWe found positive correlations between selective sensorimotor abilities and iAPF; however, no significant correlations were observed between iAPF and cognitive performance. Specifically, locomotor skills correlated with iAPF across all cortical regions, except for the occipital cortex. Furthermore, a close relationship was found between sensorimotor and cognitive performance indicating that children with improved sensorimotor abilities were faster and/or more accurate in cognitive task performance. The cumulative pattern of our results indicates that a close relationship exists between sensorimotor and cognitive performance in young children. However, this relationship is dissociated from the iAPF. ConclusionIn contrast to adults, in young children the iAPF is related to locomotor skills and not to cognitive processing speed or visual working memory function. SignificanceThe global architectural and functional properties of the brain are closely related to locomotor skills during development.

Botulinum toxin A injections and occupational therapy in children with unilateral spastic cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial.

To investigate the effects of repeated botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A) injections combined with occupational therapy, including a splint, compared with occupational therapy alone on hand function in children with unilateral spastic cerebral palsy (USCP), in all International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) domains. This was a randomized controlled study, population-based and evaluator-blinded for primary outcome (October 2004 to September 2010). Twenty children (14 males; median age 3y 1mo) with USCP, recruited at a rehabilitation centre in Sweden, were assigned to one of two parallel groups using concealed allocation. In the course of one year, 10 children received occupational therapy, while 10 received repeated BoNT-A plus occupational therapy (BoNT-A/OT). Primary outcome (Assisting Hand Assessment [AHA]), and secondary outcome measures (range of movement [ROM], and Canadian Occupational Performance Measure), were measured at baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12months. AHA revealed a superior effect in the BoNT-A/OT group at 12months: 6 out of 10 improved compared with 1 out of 10 in the occupational therapy group (p<0.03). A 95% Peskun exact confidence interval for the difference in proportions is given as 0.01 to 0.81. Secondary outcomes improved in both groups. Repeated BoNT-A/OT appeared superior to occupational therapy alone for bimanual performance in young children with USCP. Active ROM and goal performance improved in both groups.

A comparison of two approaches for representing AAC vocabulary for young children

Purpose: Young children with complex communication needs often experience difficulty in using currently available graphic symbol systems as a method of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Information on young children's performance with graphic representations based on this population's conceptualizations of these vocabulary items may assist in the development of more effective AAC systems.Method: This study developed Developmentally Appropriate Symbols (DAS) for 10 early emerging vocabulary concepts using procedures designed to address both conceptual and appeal issues for graphic representations for young children. Using a post-test only, between-subjects comparison group design, 40 typically-developing 2.5–3.5-year-old children were randomly assigned to receive a brief training in either of two different types of graphic symbol sets: (a) DAS or (b) Picture Communication Symbols (PCS), a, commercially available graphic symbol system.Result: Results of a two sample independent t-test provide evidence that children in the DAS condition correctly identified more symbols than children trained with the PCS symbols. There was no evidence of a preference between the symbol sets.Conclusion: The results provide support for careful consideration of children's use and understanding of language in developing AAC systems for young children.

Relations between response trajectories on the continuous performance test and teacher-rated problem behaviors in preschoolers.

Although both the continuous performance test (CPT) and behavior rating scales are used in both practice and research to assess inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive behaviors, the correlations between performance on the CPT and teachers' ratings are typically only small-to-moderate. This study examined trajectories of performance on a low target-frequency visual CPT in a sample of preschool children and how these trajectories were associated with teacher-ratings of problem behaviors (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity [H/I], and oppositional/defiant behavior). Participants included 399 preschool children (mean age = 56 months; 49.4% female; 73.7% White/Caucasian). An attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) rating scale was completed by teachers, and the CPT was completed by the preschoolers. Results showed that children's performance across 4 temporal blocks on the CPT was not stable across the duration of the task, with error rates generally increasing from initial to later blocks. The predictive relations of teacher-rated problem behaviors to performance trajectories on the CPT were examined using growth curve models. Higher rates of teacher-reported inattention and H/I were uniquely associated with higher rates of initial omission errors and initial commission errors, respectively. Higher rates of teacher-reported overall problem behaviors were associated with increasing rates of omission but not commission errors during the CPT; however, the relation was not specific to 1 type of problem behavior. The results of this study indicate that the pattern of errors on the CPT in preschool samples is complex and may be determined by multiple behavioral factors. These findings have implications for the interpretation of CPT performance in young children.

Performance of young children on ''traveling salesperson'' navigation tasks presented on a touch screen.

BackgroundThe traveling salesperson problem (TSP) refers to a task in which one finds the shortest path when traveling through multiple spatially distributed points. Little is known about the developmental course of the strategies used to solve TSPs. The present study examined young children's performance and route selection strategies in one-way TSPs using a city-block metric. A touch screen-based navigation task was applied.Methodology/Principal FindingsChildren (39–70 months) and adults (21–35 years) made serial responses on a touch screen to move a picture of a dog (the target) to two or three identical pictures of a bone (the goals). For all the versions of the tasks, significant improvement in measures of performance was observed from younger to older participants. In TSPs in which a specific route selection strategy such as the nearest-neighbor strategy minimized the total traveling distance, older participants used that strategy more frequently than younger ones. By contrast, in TSPs in which multiple strategies equally led to the minimal traveling distance, children tended to use strategies different from those used by adults, such as traveling straight to the farthest goal first.Conclusions/SignificanceThe results primarily suggest development of efficient route selection strategies that can optimize total numbers of movements and/or solution time. Unlike adults, children sometimes prioritized other strategies such as traveling straight ahead until being forced to change directions. This may reflect the fact that children were either less attentive to the task or less efficient at perceiving the overall shape of the problem and/or the relative distance from the starting location to each goal.

Analysis of young children’s abilities to cluster and switch during a verbal fluency task

To investigate developmental changes that take place in verbal fluency (VF) performance during early childhood, a VF task was administered to 225 healthy, Dutch-speaking children aged between 4.14 and 6.89 years. Three categories of VF outcome measures were included: i.e., word productivity, mean cluster size, and number of switches. Age influenced performance on all VF outcome measures linearly; i.e., older children produced more words, made longer clusters, and switched more. Higher levels of intelligence were associated with increased VF word productivity, but not with measures of switching and clustering. When leaving intelligence out of these analyses, we additionally found an interaction between level of parental education (LPE) and sex on total word productivity, i.e., girls with parents who had lower LPE produced fewer words than the other children. Furthermore, a similar interaction of LPE and sex was found for the number of switches: i.e., girls who had parents with lower LPE made fewer switches than the other children. Findings suggest that even in 4 to 6-year-old children important changes take place over time in VF and in processes underlying successful performance. Attention should be paid to age-extrinsic factors, such as LPE and sex, since these have been found to influence VF performance in young children.

I want it all and I want it now: Delay of gratification in preschool children.

On the delay-of-gratification choice paradigm, 4-year-olds typically choose the larger, delayed reward, exhibiting delay of gratification, whereas 3-year-olds typically choose the small, immediate reward. Despite this highly replicated finding, the cognitive mechanism(s) underlying 3-year-olds' failure on the choice paradigm remain unclear. Recently, several researchers have proposed the involvement of the "hot" affective system and the "cool" cognitive system in pre-schoolers' performance on the choice paradigm. Using this "hot" and "cool" systems framework, we tested 112 3- and 4-year-olds on a modified choice paradigm that was designed to help young children better utilize their "cool" system, allowing them to make more mindful and future-oriented decisions. In the modified paradigm, 3-year-olds made choices consistent with those of 4-year-olds, exhibiting delay of gratification. These findings have important implications for previous theoretical accounts of 3-year-old children's failure to delay gratification. Additionally, they highlight the critical role that the method plays in young children's performance on cognitive paradigms.

Correlation of neurocognitive processing subtypes with language performance in young children with cochlear implants

ObjectivesTest data were used to explore the neurocognitive processing of a group of children with cochlear implants (CIs) whose language development is below expectations.MethodsThis cross-sectional study examines the relationship between neurocognitive processing, as assessed by the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition, and verbal language standard scores, assessed using either the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language or the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals in 22 school-age children with CIs. Processing scores of CI recipients with language scores below expectations were compared to those of children meeting or exceeding language expectations. Multiple linear regression estimated the associations of simultaneous and sequential processing with language scores.ResultsThough simultaneous processing scores between the two groups were similar, the mean sequential processing score (91.2) in the below expectations group (n = 13) was significantly lower (P = 0.002) than that of children (n = 9) meeting expectations (110.8). After adjusting for age at implantation, a 10-point higher sequential processing score was associated with a 7.4 higher language score (P = 0.027).DiscussionSimultaneous processing capacity was at least within the average range of cognitive performance, and was not associated with language performance in children with CIs. Conversely, reduced sequential processing capacity was significantly associated with lower language scores.ConclusionNeurocognitive skills, specifically cognitive sequencing, serial ordering, and auditory-verbal memory may be targets for therapeutic intervention. Intensive cognitive and educational habilitation and in milieu intervention may improve language learning in children with CIs.

Executive Functions in Preschool Children With ADHD and DBD: An 18-Month Longitudinal Study

In this longitudinal study, we examined the stability of the association between executive functions and externalizing behavior problems, and the developmental change of executive functions in a predominately clinically diagnosed preschool sample (N = 200). Inhibition and working memory performance were assessed three times in 18 months. Across time, poorer inhibition performance in young children was associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and disruptive behavior disorders (DBD), and poorer working memory performance was associated with ADHD. Inhibition and working memory performance increased over time, especially in the early preschool period. The improvement of inhibition performance was more pronounced in the clinically diagnosed children compared to the TD children.

Using virtual reality to investigate comparative spatial cognitive abilities in chimpanzees and humans.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the efficacy of investigating spatial cognitive abilities across two primate species using virtual reality. In this study, we presented four captive adult chimpanzees and 16 humans (12 children and 4 adults) with simulated environments of increasing complexity and size to compare species' attention to visuo-spatial features during navigation. The specific task required participants to attend to landmarks in navigating along routes in order to localize the goal site. Both species were found to discriminate effectively between positive and negative landmarks. Assessing path efficiency revealed that both species and all age groups used relatively efficient, distance reducing routes during navigation. Compared to the chimpanzees and adult humans however, younger children's performance decreased as maze complexity and size increased. Surprisingly, in the most complex maze category the humans' performance was less accurate compared to one female chimpanzee. These results suggest that the method of using virtual reality to test captive primates, and in particular, chimpanzees, affords significant cross-species investigations of spatial cognitive and developmental comparisons.

Effect of Sleep-Disordered Breathing on Academic Achievement in Medical Students

Effect of Sleep-Disordered Breathing on Academic Achievement in Medical Students Background: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSAS) is known to cause excessive daytime sleepiness, resulting in poor academic performance in young children. The present study aimed to determine whether OSAS influences the examination results in medical students. Methods: Of 95 fifth-year students under a 6-year medical program in our medical university, 94 were enrolled with one exception, who was accidentally absent in the clinical clerkship. All students were instructed to wear a monitoring device overnight at home. The device was retrieved the next day, followed by visual data analysis. Examinations used for the assessment of academic achievement were multiple-choice tests about medical and public health knowledge essential as physicians. They were composed of general questions, clinical questions, and compulsory questions. Results: Odds ratios (OR) of OSAS for poor achievement by each question type were 3.72 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.19-11.63; P = 0.05) for general questions, 9.18 (95% CI, 0.98-86.0; P = 0.07) for clinical questions, and 3.85 (95% CI, 0.85-17.3; P = 0.14) for essential questions. Conclusions: The results of this study suggested that OSAS may adversely affects the achievement of general questions, in which declarative memory is involved, in the medical student population.

Tracking the attentional blink profile: a cross-sectional study from childhood to adolescence

This cross-sectional study is the first to examine the developmental trajectory of temporal attention control from childhood to adolescence. We used a rapid serial visual presentation paradigm, calling for the identification of two targets (T1 and T2) embedded in a distractor stream. In adults, manipulating the lag time within the target doublet typically leads to pronounced impairment in report for T2, when it follows T1 after approximately 200ms, with one intervening distractor (lag 2); this is referred to as the attentional blink (AB). Participants, however, tend to identify T2 more often when the targets have occurred in a row ("lag-1 sparing"), or are separated by larger lag times, resulting in a hook-shaped accuracy profile. Here, we investigated the extent to which this AB profile undergoes systematic developmental changes in 204 students aged between 6 and 16years (grades 1-10). T1-T2 lags varied from zero up to seven intervening distractors. Behavioral accuracy in younger children (grades 1-2) was found to follow a linear path, having its minimum at the earliest lag. Lag-1 sparing, accompanied by a relative accuracy loss in the AB interval, first appeared in grade 3, and became more robust in grade 4. From grades 5-6, the hook-shaped profile remained stable, with steady increases in overall performance up through the highest grades. This suggests that younger children's performance is limited by processing speed, while from preadolescence onwards, children are increasingly able to identify rapid target sequences at the cost of an interference sensitive, higher control system.

Young children's motor skill performance: relationships with activity types and parent perception of athletic competence.

The aims were to examine the relationship between children's motor skill levels and types of physical activities performed during preschool attendance, and to examine the relationship between motor skill performance and parent perception of athletic competence. Cross-sectional. Participants were 264, 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children from 22 preschools. Locomotor and object control skills were assessed with a standardized motor skill protocol. Direct observation (OSRAC-P) was used to record activity types: walk, run, jump/skip, dance, and throw. Parents rated their child's athletic competence. Children were categorized into tertiles for locomotor and object control scores. Mixed models were used to test for differences across motor skill tertiles for each aim. Models controlled for sex, age, race/ethnicity, body mass index, and parent education, with preschool as a random variable. Children in the highest locomotor tertile engaged in more dancing than children in the lowest tertile (p = 0.04). Children in the highest object control tertile engaged in throwing more frequently than children in lower tertiles (p < 0.05). Parents of children in the highest locomotor tertile perceived their children's competence as higher than parents of children in lower tertiles (p < 0.05). Parents of children in the lowest object control tertile perceived their children's competence as significantly lower than parents of children in higher tertiles (p < 0.05). These findings point to the need for policy and practice research to help parents and child care professionals provide opportunities for young children to learn and practice motor skills.