Performance In Triathletes Research Articles

A single trunk-mounted wearable sensor to measure motor performance in triathletes during competition

The objective of this research was to validate a single, trunk-mounted wearable sensor (Optimeye S5, Catapult Australia, Melbourne) to measure the cadence of swimming strokes, cycling pedals and running strides in a triathlon. While similar validations have been performed in swimming and running, it is a novel application in cycling, and thus, across a whole triathlon. Seven triathletes were recruited to participate in a sprint distance triathlon which was filmed and simultaneously measured by a single, trunk-mounted wearable sensor. To validate the wearable sensor, individual swimming strokes, cycling pedal strokes and running strides were manually counted by viewing the wearable sensor data and video footage. While analysing cycling data, changes in cycling subtask performances were noticed, thus, a secondary analysis in cycling was conducted to investigate. The 95% limits of agreement analysis indicated the sensor validly measured swimming strokes (mean bias = −0.034 strokes), cycling pedal strokes (mean bias = −0.09 strokes) and running strides (mean bias = 0.00 strides) with minimal to no bias ( p > 0.05). Further analysis of cycling revealed the wearable sensor is an acceptably valid tool to measure the duration of out of saddle riding (mean bias = 0.08 s), however, significant differences in the duration of in saddle riding (mean bias = −0.5 s) and coasting were identified (mean bias = 0.39 s). A single trunk mounted wearable sensor is a valid tool to measure movement cadence in a triathlon, however, further validation is required to generate a full understanding of cycling subtask performances.

The effect of caffeine on running performance in performance triathletes

Background and purpose In an endurance sport such as triathlon, coaches at the elite level strive to select an appropriate nutritional strategy prior to performance in addition to optimizing the training process. Based on this, the research in question was designed with the aim to verify the effect of caffeine on the running performance of performance triathletes during the preparation period. Purpose is to determine the effect of caffeine on running performance in triathletes. Material and methods The study sample consisted of 8 performance triathletes from the TRIAN club of ŠK UMB Banská Bystrica, whose age was 16.7 ± 0.67 years. Diagnostics were run on InSPORTline Condi T6000i treadmill with the aim of detecting lactate and blood sugar levels (mmol/l) before the performance and within 10 seconds after the performance. The blood lactate level was detected with the portable device Lactate Scout+ and the blood glucose level was measured with the Wellion CALLA light glucose meter. The running pace at which the participants performed the test was at anaerobic threshold and they attempted to cover a distance of 1,500 m at a constant incline of 3%. The testing took place 1 time per week in the morning hours (08:00-08:30). On the second day after the initial testing from 01.03.2023 to 14.03.2023, the participants started taking placebo (magnesii lactas) on a daily basis in form of capsules. The participants took 2 capsules (200 mg magnesium) which they consumed with 200 mL of water 45 to 60 minutes before each morning workout/test. This was followed by the administration of caffeine capsules, which they consumed for an additional 2 weeks from 03.15.2023 to 03.28.2023. The participants consumed caffeine capsules at 5 mg/kg body weight 45 to 60 minutes before each morning workout/test. The intervention programme lasted 5 weeks. Results When administering caffeine capsules at a dose of 5 mg/kg body weight, there was a significant reduction of approximately 26% in the average blood lactate level of the participants after the 1,500 m run. The participants' mean blood glucose levels increased by approximately 4.9% after the 1500 m run. Conclusions Based on the results we can claim that for ergogenic effects on performance we recommend supplementing with 5mg/kg body weight of caffeine approximately 45 to 60 minutes before training.

Open Water Swimming in Elite Triathletes: Physiological and Biomechanical Determinants.

This study aimed (i) to analyze the 1500 m open water swimming performance, (ii) to examine the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with swimming performance, and (iii) to determine which variables can predict swimming performance in triathletes. Fourteen elite triathletes (23.4±3.8 y) performed a 1500 m test in open water swimming conditions. Swimming performance was assessed using World Aquatics Points Scoring, and data were obtained from the 1500 m open water swimming test. Heart rate, end-exercise oxygen uptake (EE˙VO2) and blood lactate concentrations were measured. The initial 250 m of the 1500 m swimming test presented the highest values of biomechanical variables in males (i. e. swimming speed, stroke rate (SR), length (SL), index (SI)). A decrease in SL was observed in the last 250 m in both sexes. Positive association were found between EE˙VO2 (r=0.513; p=0.030), swimming speed (r=0.873; p<0.001) and SI (r=0.704; p=0.002) with swimming performance. In contrast, time constant of the oxygen uptake (r=-0.500; p=0.034) and buoy-turn times (r=-0.525; p=0.027) were negatively associated with performance. SI was the main predictor (R 2=0.495) of open water swimming performance in triathletes. In conclusion, triathletes and coaches must conduct open water training sessions to maximize SI (i. e. swimming efficiency).

Defecation after magnesium supplementation enhances cognitive performance in triathletes

Constipation is correlated with diminished cognitive function, revealing a possible rectum-brain connection. In this counter-balanced crossover trial, 13 elite triathletes underwent a Stroop test to assess cognitive function and executive control. The Stroop test was conducted both with and without magnesium oxide intake, with a 1-week washout period between sessions. Oxygenation and blood distribution during the cognitive challenge were measured using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS). Measurements were taken in both the prefrontal brain and the sub-navel region, where the highest glucose uptake was detected under the 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan. A significant reduction in completion time for the Stroop test was observed after defecation compared to the non-defecated condition (non-defecation: [27.1 ​± ​1.1] s; non-magnesium defecation: [24.4 ​± ​0.9] s; magnesium defecation: [23.4 ​± ​0.8] s, p ​< ​0.05). Stroop test performance was improved in all (100%, 13/13) of the participants after magnesium-induced defecation and most (69%, 9/13) of the participants after non-magnesium-induced defecation. While no alterations in oxygenation and blood distribution were observed in the prefrontal brain during the Stroop test, decreased oxygenation levels were observed in the sub-navel region under both defecated conditions, without significant changes in blood distribution (p ​< ​0.05). This data suggests an acute increase in oxygen consumption at this specific region. The result of this study suggests an unexplored causal link between the state of the rectum and cognitive performance. Magnesium supplementation to improved rectal emptying presents a novel application for optimizing cognitive function in athletes navigating intricate racing conditions.

Determinants of 1500-m Front-Crawl Swimming Performance in Triathletes: Influence of Physiological and Biomechanical Variables.

To analyze the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with the FINA (International Swimming Federation)points (ie,swimming performance) obtained in 1500-m front-crawl swimming to determine whether these variables can be used to explain triathletes' FINA points. Fourteen world-class, international and national triathletes (10 male: 23.24 [3.70]y and 4 female: 23.36 [3.76]y) performed a 1500-m front-crawl swimming test in a short-course pool. Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (V˙O2), and blood lactate concentrations were obtained before and after the test. HR was also measured during the effort. Highest V˙O2 value (V˙O2peak) was estimated by extrapolation. Clean swimming speed, turn performance, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke index (SI) were obtained by video analysis. Average 1500-m performance times were 1088 (45)seconds and 1144 (31)seconds for males and females, respectively. HR after the effort, V˙O2peak, aerobic contributions, total energyexpenditure, energy cost, and turn performance presented moderate negative associations with swimming performance (r ≈ .5). In contrast, respiratory exchange ratio, anaerobic alactic contribution, clean swimming speed, stroke length, and SI were positively related, with clean swimming speed and SI havinga strong large association (r ≈ .7). A multiple stepwise regression model determined that 71% of thevariance in FINA points was explained by SI and total energy expenditure, being predictors in 1500-m front-crawl swimming. Swimming performance in triathletes was determined by the athletes' energy demands and biomechanical variables. Thus, coaches should develop specific technique skills to improve triathletes' swimming efficiency.

Defecation enhances cerebral perfusion and delays fatigue in elite triathletes.

Rectal distension increases regulatory burden to autonomic nervous system in the brain. To determine the effect of rectal defecation on endurance performance and blood supply to the prefrontal brain and sub-navel regions of elite triathletes. Thirteen elite triathletes completed a cycling time trial (80% VO2max) under defecated and non-defecated conditions, using a counterbalanced crossover design. Oxygenation and blood distribution in prefrontal brain and sub-navel regions were monitored by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) during cycling. Defecation moderately decreased systolic blood pressure (-4 mmHg, p < 0.05, d = 0.71), suggesting an alleviation of autonomic nervous activity. During the exercise trials, fatigue (cycling time to exhaustion) occurred when cerebral oxygenation decreased to ~ 5 % below baseline regardless of treatment conditions, suggesting a critical deoxygenation point for sustaining voluntary exertions. Cerebral blood (estimated by total hemoglobin) increased progressively throughout the entire exercise period. Defecation decreased sub-navel oxygenation levels below the non-defecated level, suggesting an increased sub-navel oxygen consumption. Exercise also decreased sub-navel blood distribution, with minimal difference between non-defecated and defecated conditions. Defecation improved blood pooling in the prefrontal brain during exercise (p < 0.05) and enhanced cycling performance in triathletes (Non-defecated: 1624 ± 138 s vs. defecated: 1902 ± 163 s, d = 0.51, p < 0.05). Our results suggest that improved exercise performance after defecation is associated with greater blood availability to compensate deoxygenation in the prefrontal brain region during exercise. Further investigation is needed to examine the role of increasing sub-navel oxygen consumption in the performance improvement after defecation.

Relationship between anxiety levels and the performance of early adolescent athletic athletes in trirace numbers

This study aims to examine the relationship between athlete anxiety and triathlete performance in early adolescent athletes. The subjects consisted of 95 athletes who participated in the junior high school O2SN championship. This research was conducted in one day, the anxiety instrument was administered after the championship and the athlete's performance was calculated based on the overall athlete's achievement, which was obtained from the competition committee's official results. The Sport Anxiety Scale 2 (SAS-2) is used in the anxiety instrument, which consists of 15 questions, plus 9 questions about the difficulties of athletes in carrying out competitions for each race number, which are taken from the World Athletics Federation (WAF) manual on the rules or race flow of each race number. The relationship between anxiety and triathlete performance in early adolescent athletics is investigated using Pearson correlation analysis. There is a very strong negative correlation between anxiety and tri-race performance of early adolescent athletes with r = -0.834, and the long jump number is a race number with a high level of anxiety and difficulty based on early adolescent athletes’ perception results. Key words: Anxiety Level, Early Adolescent Athlete Performance, Tri-race Athletics

Hydrolyzed whey protein enriched with glutamine dipeptide attenuates skeletal muscle damage and improves physical exhaustion test performance in triathletes.

To investigate the effects of hydrolyzed whey protein enriched with glutamine dipeptide on the percentage of oxygen consumption, second ventilatory threshold, duration and total distance covered, and skeletal muscle damage during an exhaustion test in elite triathletes. The study was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Nine male triathletes performed a progressive incremental test on a treadmill ergometer (1.4 km h-1·3 min-1) 30 min after ingesting either 50 g of maltodextrin plus four tablets of 700 mg hydrolyzed whey protein enriched with 175 mg of glutamine dipeptide diluted in 250 ml of water (MGln) or four tablets of 700 mg maltodextrin plus 50 g maltodextrin diluted in 250 ml of water (M). Each athlete was submitted to the two dietary treatments and two corresponding exhaustive physical tests with an interval of one week between the interventions. The effects of the two treatments were then compared within the same athlete. Maximal oxygen consumption, percentage of maximal oxygen consumption, second ventilatory threshold, and duration and total distance covered were measured during the exhaustion test. Blood was collected before and immediately after the test for the determination of plasma lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) activities and lactate concentration (also measured 6, 10, and 15 min after the test). Plasma cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-1ra) and C-reactive protein levels were also measured. A single dose of MGln increased the percentage of maximal oxygen consumption, second ventilatory threshold duration, and total distance covered during the exhaustion test and augmented plasma lactate levels 6 and 15 min after the test. MGln also decreased plasma LDH and CK activities indicating muscle damage protection. Plasma cytokine and C-reactive protein levels did not change across the study periods. Conditions including overnight fasting and a single dose of MGln supplementation resulted in exercising at a higher percentage of maximal oxygen consumption, a higher second ventilatory threshold, blood lactate levels, and reductions in plasma markers of muscle damage during an exhaustion test in elite triathletes. These findings support oral glutamine supplementation's efficacy in triathletes, but further studies require.

Impact of increasing age on high-performance Olympic triathletes in male and female: a case report

Aim: Increasing age is associated with significant changes in athletes' performance; however, it is not yet known how increasing age could influence the performance of triathletes. In this sense, the present study aimed to investigate how the performance of two elite triathletes (HCK and AD), who participated and finished the Olympic Games in Sydney, Athens, Beijing, and London, could change over the years. Methods: This study reports two cases (male and female) with cross-sectional and retrospective characteristics that describe how the increasing age changes the performance of two elite triathletes who participated in four consecutive Olympics (2000, 2004, 2008, and 2012). Pearson correlation test was used to verify the correlation between the performance and age of the triathletes. A value of p < 0.05 was assumed to show statistical significance. Results: The results suggest that both triathletes showed impaired performance at the Summer Games in Athens in 2004. When the two athletes were analyzed together, positive correlations were observed between age and transition 1 (T1; swim-to-cycle) and transition 2 (T2; cycle-to-run). Also, a high correlation was found between T2 and age for HCK but not for AD. The results showed a significant correlation between increasing age and a reduction in running performance for HCK. Conclusion: Although the two triathletes improved overall time throughout the Olympic Games, this improvement did not correlate with age. Thus, the increasing age does not seem to impact these two athletes during the four Olympic events.

Relationships between lung volume and respiratory muscle performance in triathletes

Relationships between lung volume and respiratory muscle performance in triathletes

Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 Improves Physiological Adaptation and Performance in Triathletes through Gut Microbiota Modulation.

A triathlon is an extremely high-intensity exercise and a challenge for physiological adaptation. A triathlete’s microbiome might be modulated by diet, age, medical treatments, lifestyle, and exercise, thereby maintaining aerobiosis and optimum health and performance. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics have been reported to have health-promoting activities (e.g., immunoregulation and cancer prevention). However, few studies have addressed how probiotics affect the microbiota of athletes and how this translates into functional activities. In our previous study, we found that Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 could ameliorate inflammation and oxidative stress, with improved exercise performance. Thus, here we investigate how the microbiota of triathletes are altered by L. plantarum PS128 supplementation, not only for exercise performance but also for possible physiological adaptation. The triathletes were assigned to two groups: an L. plantarum 128 supplement group (LG, 3 × 1010 colony-forming units (CFU)/day) and a placebo group (PG). Both groups continued with their regular exercise training for the next 4 weeks. The endurance performance, body composition, biochemistries, blood cells, microbiota, and associated metabolites were further investigated. PS128 significantly increased the athletes’ endurance, by about 130% as compared to the PG group, but there was no significant difference in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and composition between groups. The PS128 supplementation (LG) modulated the athlete’s microbiota with both significant decreases (Anaerotruncus, Caproiciproducens, Coprobacillus, Desulfovibrio, Dielma, Family_XIII, Holdemania, and Oxalobacter) and increases (Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium, Butyricimonas, and Lactobacillus), and the LG showed lower diversity when compared to the PG. Also, the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; acetate, propionate, and butyrate) of the LG were significantly higher than the PG, which might be a result of a modulation of the associated microbiota. In conclusion, PS128 supplementation was associated with an improvement on endurance running performance through microbiota modulation and related metabolites, but not in maximal oxygen uptake.

Futureproofing triathlon: expert suggestions to improve health and performance in triathletes

BackgroundGiven the multi-modal nature of triathlon (swimming, cycling, running), training for a triathlon event has numerous potential health benefits including physical fitness. However, triathletes also have a high prevalence of health issues including overuse injury, illness, fatigue, and burnout. To address the ongoing prevalence of health issues, roundtable discussions were organized at the International Triathlon Union Science of Triathlon 2017 conference to develop strategic objectives deemed necessary to “futureproof triathlon”. Futureproofing as a concept serves to design new approaches and ways of thinking to reduce consequences in the future. In this case, the futureproof process aimed to develop key recommendations for triathlon.MethodsThis qualitative study had 22 participants including athletes, coaches, practitioners, academics, and policy makers who participated in roundtable discussions at the Science of Triathlon conference. Seven of these participants completed follow-up semi-structured interviews on the same topics. The data collected from the roundtable discussions and the semi-structured interviews was analyzed using thematic analysis.ResultsFive main themes were produced: “Critical appraisal and application of knowledge”; “Integrated approaches to developing, disseminating, and using research and expertise”; “Appropriate development and use of measures for monitoring training and recovery”; “Knowing your athletes and adopting holistic approaches to athlete/person-development”, and; “Challenging accepted cultural and sporting norms”. Participants indicated the need to reduce the knowledge gap between research and practice as well as a more collaborative approach to triathlon research development amongst coaches/practitioners and academics. It was stated that current monitoring tools require more research to determine which are most useful to informed decision making for coaches/practitioners. It was cautioned that data driven assessments should be used judiciously and be athlete centered. Triathlon as a sport should also have a greater focus on healthy participation and development of youth athletes.ConclusionsA series of applied implications were developed based on these five themes as guiding principles for how to futureproof triathlon. Additionally, roundtable and interview participants who held varying positions and opinions within the sport of triathlon agreed that the unique challenge of training for and competing in a triathlon should not be forgotten in the futureproofing of the sport.

Dispositional Flow and Performance in Brazilian Triathletes.

Flow is a mental state characterized by total immersion and focus in an activity; performing it pleasurably. Such a state is considered optimal for performance. The present study analyzed the relationship between dispositional flow and performance in triathletes. The sample consisted of 328 athletes (294 males and 34 females; mean age of 37.42 ± 7.18 years) competing in the Ironman Brazil – Florianópolis – South American Championship 2017. Instruments were an identification sheet, the Dispositional Flow Scale (DFS-2) and athletes’ total race times. Data were analyzed using R, through the Shapiro–Wilk normality test, Mann–Whitney’s U, Spearman Correlation, and Network Analysis [Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO)], using strength, closeness, and betweenness as centrality measurements. Results show a positive correlation between age and practice time (r = 0.34), inverse relationship between practice time and total race time (r = −0.25), and inverse correlations between race time and 05 of the 09 flow dimensions (r between −0.17 and −0.11), suggesting better performances were related to more practice time and higher disposition to flow. Flow conditions, flow characteristics, individual characteristics, and performance were separately grouped in the network structure. Challenge–skill balance was the most influential node, with the highest closeness and betweenness values; challenge–skill balance, clear goals, control, and action-awareness merge directly influenced better race times. Sample’s top 50 performers had significantly higher disposition to challenge-skill balance, clear goals, control and feedback. Practical implications of flow mechanisms are discussed. Dispositional flow was positively related to objective performance in Brazilian triathletes.

The Beneficial Effects of Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 on High-Intensity, Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Performance in Triathletes.

A triathlon, which consists of swimming, bicycling, and running, is a high-intensity and long-term form of exercise that can cause injuries such as muscular damage, inflammation, oxidative stress, and energy imbalance. Probiotics are thought to play an important role in disease incidence, health promotion, and nutrient metabolism, but only a few studies have focused on physiological adaptations to exercise in sports science. Previous studies indicated that Lactobacillus supplementation could improve oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. We investigate the effects of Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 supplementation on triathletes for possible physiological adaptation. The triathletes were assigned to one of two groups with different exercise intensity stimulations with different time-points to investigate the effects of body compositions, inflammation, oxidative stress, performance, fatigue, and injury-related biochemical indices. L. plantarum PS128 supplementation, combined with training, can significantly alleviate oxidative stress (such as creatine kinase, Thioredoxin, and Myeloperoxidase indices) after a triathlon (p < 0.05). This effect is possibly regulated by a 6–13% decrease of indicated pro-inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8) cytokines (p < 0.05) and 55% increase of anti-inflammation (IL-10) cytokines (p < 0.05) after intensive exercise stimulation. In addition, L. plantarum PS128 can also substantially increase 24–69% of plasma-branched amino acids (p < 0.05) and elevate exercise performance, as compared to the placebo group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, L. plantarum PS128 may be a potential ergogenic aid for better training management, physiological adaptations to exercise, and health promotion.

Comparison of Reduced-Volume High-Intensity Interval Training and High-Volume Training on Endurance Performance in Triathletes.

To investigate changes in physiological and performance variables in triathletes following a 4-wk period of reduced training volume and increased training intensity. Sixteen moderately trained triathletes were randomly allocated to 2 groups: a control (CON) group, which followed their usual training, or a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) group, which completed 2 HIIT sessions per week during 4 wk of reduced training volume Results: Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) increased significantly in the HIIT group (P = .03, d = 0.5) but remained unchanged in the CON group. Cycling power at first and second ventilatory thresholds increased significantly in the HIIT subjects (P = .03, d = 1.0) and was unchanged in the CON participants (P = .57). During the simulated triathlon test, pretest-posttest cycling times and average power were unchanged in both groups (P > .05). No significant interactive effects between groups were observed for running time (P = .50). After a 4-wk HIIT program, VO2max and power at first and second ventilatory thresholds were found to have increased significantly while cycling and running performance were unchanged, despite an overall reduction in training time. In the present study, performance was only shown to improve with usual (high-volume) training. Summarizing, in order to improve running or cycling performances, high-volume training programs are highly recommended.

Effects of taurine on markers of muscle damage, inflammatory response and physical performance in triathletes.

The practice of prolonged exercise with high intensity, as seen in triathlon training, can cause physiological imbalances that might result in muscle fatigue, muscle damage and changes in systemic inflammatory response, thus reduce the athletes' physical performance, therefore, both adequate total caloric and macronutrient intake also the use of a specific ergogenic aid, as taurine supplementation would be an alternative to prevent inflammation and muscle damage. In order to verify the effects of 8 weeks of taurine and chocolate milk supplementation, markers of muscle damage, inflammation, and aerobic capacity were quantified in triathletes. A double-blind, crossover, randomized study was conducted with 9 male long-distance triathletes, aged 25-35 years. Supplementation of 3 g of taurine (TAU) or placebo (PLA) associated with 400 mL low fat chocolate milk was performed during an 8-week period. In order to verify the effects of the supplementation protocol markers of muscle damage as lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK), and inflammatory markers tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were quantified, also triathletes' performance was evaluated by exhaust test on a treadmill. It was observed a significant increase in taurine and CK plasma levels after TAU supplementation (P=0.02 and P=0.01, respectively). However, LDH concentrations did not differ significantly after the supplementations performed, and there were no changes in physical performance parameters; anaerobic threshold, perceived exertion, heart rate, and the concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α. Taurine supplementation did not provide benefits on performance and muscle damage in triathletes.

Pulmonary Function And Endurance Performance In Triathlon

Pulmonary function, which supplies adequate and instantaneous amounts of oxygen consumption, is associated with the exercise performance. Endurance athletes, such as triathlon and swimming, have a higher and prolonged demand than power athletes and non-athletes for gas exchange and ventilation during exercise. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to analyze pulmonary function and the relationship between pulmonary function and endurance performance in triathletes. METHODS: Twenty- four male subjects, aged 20-25 years old, were recruited and divided into triathletes (n=12), who participated in international competition, and non-athletic control (n=12) groups. Anthropometry and body fat were measured at rest. Pulmonary function tests were performed using a spirometry, including tidal volume (VT), vital capacity (VC), forced vital capacity (FVC), Forced expiratory volume (FEV) in 1 second (FEV1) and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV). Endurance performance tests were examined during treadmill exercise testing with respiratory gas analysis, including maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) and time to exhaustion (TTE). Informed consent forms had been completed by all participants before the experiments started. RESULTS: All of baseline characteristics were not significantly different between two groups, except for the percentage of body fat (13.59 ±3.30 % and 19.70 ±4.73 %, p < .05 in triathletes and control groups). Triathletes had significantly higher pulmonary function in VT (0.80 ±0.20 vs 0.63 ±0.13 L, p < .05), FVC (5.09 ±0.50 vs 4.53 ±0.43 L, p < .05), and MVV (181.72 ±21.70 vs 157.97 ±17.83 L/min, p < .05) compared with the control group. Moreover, they had greater VO2max (66.90 ±4.93 vs 47.00 ±8.43 ml.min-1.kg-1) and higher TTE (1074.80 ±43.10 vs 782.40 ±92.30 secs) compared with their counterpart (p < .05). We also found that FVC, FEV1 and MVV were significantly correlated with VO2max in all subjects (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: This study indicated that triathletes had higher pulmonary function and some correlations existed in pulmonary function and VO2max, which may provide useful information for triathlon training.

The effects of intermittent hypoxia training on hematological and aerobic performance in triathletes

The aim of the present research was to analyze modifications on hematological and aerobic performance parameters after a 7-week intermittent hypoxia training (IHT) program. Eighteen male trained triathletes were divided in two groups: an intermittent hypoxia training group (IHTG: n: 9; 26.0 ± 6.7 years; 173.3 ± 5.9 cm; 66.4 ± 5.9 kg; VO₂max: 59.5 ± 5.0 ml/kg/min) that conducted a normoxic training plus an IHT and a control group (CG: n: 9; 29.3 ± 6.8 years; 174.9 ± 4.6 cm; 59.7 ± 6.8 kg; VO₂max: 58.9 ± 4.5 ml/kg/min) that performed only a normoxic training. Training process was standardized across the two groups. The IHT program consisted of two 60-min sessions per week at intensities over the anaerobic threshold and atmospheric conditions between 14.5 and 15% FiO₂. Before and after the 7-week training, aerobic performance in an incremental running test and hematological parameters were analyzed. After this training program, the IHTG showed higher hemoglobin and erythrocytes (p < 0.05) values than in the CG. In terms of physiological and performance variables, between the two groups no changes were found. The addition of an IHT program to normoxic training caused an improvement in hematological parameters but aerobic performance and physiological variables compared to similar training under normoxic conditions did not increase.

High-intensity cycle interval training improves cycling and running performance in triathletes

Effective cycle training for triathlon is a challenge for coaches. We compared the effects of two variants of cycle high-intensity interval training (HIT) on triathlon-specific cycling and running. Fourteen moderately-trained male triathletes (O2peak 58.7 ± 8.1 mL kg−1 min−1; mean ± SD) completed on separate occasions a maximal incremental test (O2peak and maximal aerobic power), 16 × 20 s cycle sprints and a 1-h triathlon-specific cycle followed immediately by a 5 km run time trial. Participants were then pair-matched and assigned randomly to either a long high-intensity interval training (LONG) (6–8 × 5 min efforts) or short high-intensity interval training (SHORT) (9–11 × 10, 20 and 40 s efforts) HIT cycle training intervention. Six training sessions were completed over 3 weeks before participants repeated the baseline testing. Both groups had an ∼7% increase in O2peak (SHORT 7.3%, ±4.6%; mean, ±90% confidence limits; LONG 7.5%, ±1.7%). There was a moderate improvement in mean power for both the SHORT (10.3%, ±4.4%) and LONG (10.7%, ±6.8%) groups during the last eight 20-s sprints. There was a small to moderate decrease in heart rate, blood lactate and perceived exertion in both groups during the 1-h triathlon-specific cycling but only the LONG group had a substantial decrease in the subsequent 5-km run time (64, ±59 s). Moderately-trained triathletes should use both short and long high-intensity intervals to improve cycling physiology and performance. Longer 5-min intervals on the bike are more likely to benefit 5 km running performance.

Shoe cleat position during cycling and its effect on subsequent running performance in triathletes

Research with cyclists suggests a decreased load on the lower limbs by placing the shoe cleat more posteriorly, which may benefit subsequent running in a triathlon. This study investigated the effect of shoe cleat position during cycling on subsequent running. Following bike-run training sessions with both aft and traditional cleat positions, 13 well-trained triathletes completed a 30 min simulated draft-legal triathlon cycling leg, followed by a maximal 5 km run on two occasions, once with aft-placed and once with traditionally placed cleats. Oxygen consumption, breath frequency, heart rate, cadence and power output were measured during cycling, while heart rate, contact time, 200 m lap time and total time were measured during running. Cardiovascular measures did not differ between aft and traditional cleat placement during the cycling protocol. The 5 km run time was similar for aft and traditional cleat placement, at 1084 ± 80 s and 1072 ± 64 s, respectively, as was contact time during km 1 and 5, and heart rate and running speed for km 5 for the two cleat positions. Running speed during km 1 was 2.1% ± 1.8 faster (P < 0.05) for the traditional cleat placement. There are no beneficial effects of an aft cleat position on subsequent running in a short distance triathlon.