Function In Old Age Research Articles

Hand function after the menopause.

Hand function declines with age, and therefore, by implication, after the menopause. The simple ageing process clearly affects both women and men, but women may experience more of a decline of hand function in older age. This is not readily explained in terms of straightforward ageing, but women are more likely to be adversely affected by diseases such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Hormonal influences, particularly in osteoarthritis, may be the reason for women experiencing more severe disease. Both arthritides are multi-factorial in their aetiology, and the same is true of the declining hand function that is seen as part of the ageing process.

Measuring renal function in old age

The kidneys undergo a multitude of structural and functional changes with advancing age. Structurally, there is a progressive loss of predominantly cortical renal mass, a decrease in the number of glomeruli, an increase in the proportion of sclerotic glomeruli, atherosclerotic vascular changes and interstitial changes resulting in atrophy and fibrosis. Functionally, there is a decline in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), resulting primarily from a decrease in the number of functioning nephrons.

Morphologically and functionally intact dendritic cells can be derived from the peripheral blood of aged individuals.

Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells (APC), which are crucial for the initiation of an immune response. In spite of the well known decline of immune function in old age, no information is yet available on whether dendritic cells are also affected by the ageing process. It was therefore the aim of this study to compare peripheral blood dendritic cells (DC) from old and young healthy individuals. Using granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and IL-4, DC were propagated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The obtained cell populations had a typical dendritic morphology and expressed HLA class I and class II, CD23, CD32, CD40, CD44 and CD54, but not CD3 and CD19. Larger numbers of DC were obtained from old individuals than from young ones in spite of a similar expression pattern of surface molecules. DC from aged persons also survived better under in vitro culture conditions. When tested for their antigen-presenting capacity, DC from young and old individuals were equally effective in inducing the proliferation of tetanus toxoid-specific T cell clones after antigenic stimulation. Peripheral blood DC from aged individuals may thus still function as powerful APC. They may represent useful tools for immunotherapy in the aged.

Trends in medication use and functioning before retirement age: are they linked?

This paper explores the extent to which changes in medication use during the 1990s are linked to improvements in functioning among Americans before they reach retirement age. Using two cross-sections from a survey of Americans ages 51-61, we examined changes between 1992 and 1998 in the prevalence of functional limitations and medication use associated with five chronic conditions: hypertension, diabetes, lung disease, stroke, and arthritis. We found no evidence linking increases in medication use to improvements in functioning. Instead, increases in educational attainment offset the negative effects of increases in obesity and arthritis over this period. Findings underscore the need for caution in projecting forward improvements in old-age functioning when considering the future of Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs that serve the elderly with disabilities.

Creating new neurons in old brains.

The brains of aged rodents exhibit decreased neurogenesis as compared to those of young adult rodents. Basal neurogenesis has previously been shown to increase in the young adult rodent brain upon the administration of growth factors. However, it is unknown whether similar treatment can affect this process in the aging brain. A recent paper published in the June 2003 issue of the journal Aging Cell reveals that two growth factors can stimulate neurogenesis in aged mice. This result raises the possibility that similar treatments may be used in humans to help maintain normal brain function in old age.

Some implications of attachment theory for understanding psychological functioning in old age: an illustration from the long‐term psychological effects of World War Two

AbstractThis paper aims to outline some of the implications of attachment theory for understanding the way in which older adults deal with the salient developmental tasks of later life. The paper aims to illustrate this theme by exploring the way in which negative childhood attachment‐related experiences brought about by the Second World War may have adversely affected the way in which some of the current generation of older adults function in old age. The paper begins with a brief introduction to attachment theory and research and then moves on to consider some of the ways in which the Second World War may have affected the attachment‐related experiences of the United Kingdom population. Finally, some of the clinical implications of attachment theory are briefly discussed, and the implications for assessing and treating older adults are considered. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Divided Attention in Older But Not Younger Adults Is Impaired by Anxiety

It has been hypothesized that the disruptive effects of negative emotional states, such as anxiety and depression, may contribute to poorer performance in older age. Some studies have reported that higher levels of anxiety are associated with poorer cognitive performance in older adults but not younger adults. The author examined if age and anxiety interact with performance by comparing the performance of normal healthy younger and older adults on cognitive and motor tests under conditions of selective and divided attention. Ninety-two older adults (mean age=70.1 years, SD =7.1 years) and 78 younger adults (mean age=18.8 years, SD =1.9 years), matched on education, vocabulary, and self-reported health, performed a word-comparison and pursuit-rotor task under conditions of selective and divided attention. Anxiety was assessed using the Speilberger State-Trait anxiety scale. The hypothesis was supported: higher anxiety was associated with poorer divided attention performance in older, but not younger, adults. Anxiety was not associated with poorer motor performance in older adults. Implications of the results for cognitive-resource theories of aging cognition are discussed.

Effects of death within 11 years on cognitive performance in old age.

Six different cognitive tests and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were given to 3,572 active community residents aged 49 to 93 years. Causes of death were ascertained for 443 who died between 36 and 3,903 days later. Subsequent survival predicted test scores during the 3,903 days and independently during Days 36 to 1,826 and Days 1,827 to 3,903. Scores on the BDI and cumulative verbal learning and vocabulary tests predicted mortality after demographics and performance on other cognitive tests had been considered. Predictors were similar for deaths from heart disease, malignancies, and other causes. A new finding that cognitive tests did not predict survival duration within the sample of deceased explains previous findings of greater terminal decline in performance for young than for elderly adults.

Age Differences in Inhibition of Schema-Activated Distractors

In recent years a debate has ensued over the arguments that normal aging is associated with a reduction in the efficiency of inhibitory mechanisms underlying selective attention, leading to disruptions in the normal operation of working memory. The purpose of the study reported here was to investigate the relationship between age, inhibitory functioning, and working memory, adapting a procedure previously used by Gernsbacher and Faust (1991) to measure the suppression of activated, but no-longer-relevant information in working memory. Young and older adults viewed picture arrays of objects found in common settings, and then judged whether a target word named an item from the previously presented array. Older adults relative to young adults demonstrated less suppression of critical target items. The implications of these findings regarding inhibitory function in old age are discussed.

Effects of death within 11 years on cognitive performance in old age.

Six different cognitive tests and the Heck Depression Inventory (BDI) were given to 3,572 active community residents aged 49 to 93 years. Causes of death were ascertained for 443 who died between 36 and 3,903 days later. Subsequent survival predicted test scores during the 3,903 days and independently during Days 36 to 1,826 and Days 1,827 to 3,903. Scores on the BDI and cumulative verbal learning and vocabulary tests predicted mortality after demographics and performance on other cognitive tests had been considered. Predictors were similar for deaths from heart disease, malignancies, and other causes. A new finding that cognitive tests did not predict survival duration within the sample of deceased explains previous findings of greater terminal decline in performance for young than for elderly adults.

Whose Education Counts? The Added Impact of Adult-Child Education on Physical Functioning of Older Taiwanese

Research has implicated education as an important predictor of physical functioning in old age. Older adults in Taiwan tend to experience tight familial integration and high rates of adult-child coresidency-much more so than is typical in Western cultures-which might imply additional influences stemming from the education of children. This could arise in a number of ways; for instance, through the sharing of health-related information between child and parent, the quality of caregiving efforts, monetary assistance for medical and other services, or other psychosocial avenues. Despite this probable association, such hypotheses have rarely been tested. In this study, a nationally representative survey of older Taiwanese was used to examine these concurrent effects. Outcome variables include the existence of any functional limitations (dichotomously measured) and the severity of functional disorders (ordinally measured). Dichotomous and ordinal logistic models were used. Results suggest that, after adjusting for age, sex, and other factors, both child and respondent education associate with the existence of limitations, but the child's education is more important than the parent's when predicting severity of limitations. This implies that models ignoring social network characteristics in determining health outcomes of older adults may be misspecified, at least in some non-Western societies, and calls for further testing in other societies as well.

Individual differences in rates of change in cognitive abilities of older persons.

The authors examined change in cognitive abilities in older Catholic clergy members. For up to 6 years, participants underwent annual clinical evaluations, which included a battery of tests from which summary measures of 7 abilities were derived. On average, decline occurred in each ability and was more rapid in older persons than in younger persons. However, wide individual differences were evident at all ages. Rate of change in a given domain was not strongly related to baseline level of function in that domain but was moderately associated with rates of change in other cognitive domains. The results suggest that change in cognitive function in old age primarily reflects person-specific factors rather than an inevitable developmental process.

Effect of Low Levels of Serum Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid on Cognitive Performance in Old Age: A Population-Based Study

We studied the effect of low levels of vitamin B12 and folic acid, alone or combined, on cognitive performance in a population-based sample of 698 older adults (mean age = 68.7 years). No evidence was found for a vitamin-related memory deficit, but research participants with low levels of vitamin B12 exhibited reduced information processing speed relative to participants with normal vitamin B12 levels.

Effect of Low Levels of Serum Vitamin B<SUB>12</SUB> and Folic Acid on Cognitive Performance in Old Age: A Population-Based Study

Effect of Low Levels of Serum Vitamin B<SUB>12</SUB> and Folic Acid on Cognitive Performance in Old Age: A Population-Based Study

Two-Year Decline in Vision but Not Hearing Is Associated with Memory Decline in Very Old Adults in a Population-Based Sample

Background: Recent cross-sectional research in cognitive aging has demonstrated a robust association between visual acuity, auditory thresholds and cognitive performance in old age. However, the nature of the association is still unclear, particularly with respect to whether sensory and cognitive function are causally related. Objective: This study aimed to determine whether marked declines in performance on screening measures of either visual acuity or auditory thresholds have an effect on cognitive decline over 2 years. Methods: The sample from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing (n = 2,087) were assessed in 1992 and 1994 on measures of sensory and cognitive function as part of a larger clinical assessment. A quasi-experimental design involving comparison of extreme groups using repeated measures MANCOVA with age as a covariate was used. Results: Group performance on measures of hearing, memory, verbal ability and processing speed declined significantly. Decline in visual acuity had a significant effect on memory decline, but not on decline in verbal ability or processing speed. Decline in hearing was not associated with decline in any cognitive domain. Conclusion: The common association between visual acuity, auditory thresholds and cognitive function observed in cross-sectional studies appears to be disassociated in longitudinal studies.

The strong connection between sensory and cognitive performance in old age: Not due to sensory acuity reductions operating during cognitive assessment.

Cognitive aging research has documented a strong increase in the covariation between sensory and cognitive functioning with advancing age. In part, this finding may reflect sensory acuity reductions operating during cognitive assessment. To examine this possibility, the authors administered cognitive tasks used in prior studies (e.g., Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994) to middle-aged adults under age-simulation conditions of reduced visual acuity, auditory acuity, or both. Visual acuity was lowered through partial occlusion filters, and auditory acuity through headphone-shaped noise protectors. Acuity manipulations reduced visual acuity and auditory acuity in the speech range to values reaching or approximating old-age acuity levels, respectively, but did not lower cognitive performance relative to control conditions. Results speak against assessment-related sensory acuity accounts of the age-related increase in the connection between sensory and cognitive functioning and underscore the need to explore alternative explanations, including a focus on general aspects of brain aging.

More Meaning by Exercising? Physical Activity as a Predictor of a Sense of Meaning in Life and of Self-Rated Health and Functioning in Old Age

This study examined longitudinally the predictive value of physical activity for a sense of meaning in life and for self-rated health and functioning. The study was part of the Evergreen Project in Jyväskylä, Finland. A representative sample (N = 198) of elderly persons born between 1904 and 1913 was interviewed in 1988 and followed up in 1996. The interviews dealt with physical, psychological, and social functioning. The interview questions selected for this study dealt with the intensity of physical activity, meaning in life, and self-rated health and functioning. Longitudinal models showed that physical activity had a positive effect on both meaning in life and self-rated health and functioning. Physical activity and meaning in life also had indirect effects on self-rated health and functioning.

Do socioeconomic disadvantages persist into old age? Self-reported morbidity in a 29-year follow-up of the Whitehall Study.

This study examined (1) the relation of employment grade in middle age to self-reported poor health and functional limitations in old age and (2) whether socioeconomic status at approximately the time of retirement modifies health differentials in old age. Survivors of the Whitehall Study cohort of men were resurveyed. Respondents were aged 40 to 69 years when they were originally screened in 1967 to 1970. Compared with senior administrators, men in clerical or manual (low-grade) jobs in middle age had quadruple the odds of poor physical performance in old age, triple the odds of poor general health, and double the odds of poor mental health and disability. At most, 20% of these differences were explained by baseline health or risk factors. Men who moved from low to middle grades before retirement were less likely than those who remained in low grades to have poor mental health. Socioeconomic status in middle age and at approximately retirement age is associated with morbidity in old age.

Optomotor and neuropsychological performance in old age.

While a delayed initiation of visually guided saccades with increasing age has been documented in a number of studies, little research has been done on the control of antisaccades. The present study investigates aging effects on the control of visually guided saccades (prosaccades) and antisaccades as well as a selection of neuropsychological functions by the cross-sectional comparison of 14, 22, and 16 participants aged 20-35 years, 59-73 years, and 74-88 years, respectively. The geriatric and neurological status of the elder participants (including evidence from computed tomography, electroencephalography, and neurological soft signs) was assessed. In four task blocks of 200 trials each, pro- and antisaccades were elicited under the 200-ms-gap and overlap conditions. Left- and right-sided stimuli were presented in random order at 4 degrees, and the order of the task blocks was varied within each age group. In addition, the Wisconsin card-sorting test (WCST) and working memory, go-nogo discrimination, alertness, and stimulus-response incompatibility tests were administered. Participants aged 59-73 years exhibited widespread reductions of optomotor and neuropsychological performance, with greatest effect sizes of age differences in the optomotor parameters and the WCST measures. A further decay after the age of 73 years was discernible in those optomotor functions reflecting saccade disinhibition (in particular, directional errors during the antisaccade task and premature responses) and the performance in some neuropsychological tests. In line with previously published reports, variance in optomotor performance could be explained by two factors, accounting for a total of 76% of the age variance. Our results suggest that the investigation of saccade control may be a highly sensitive tool for neurodevelopmental aging research.

Independent effects of peripheral nerve dysfunction on lower-extremity physical function in old age: the Women's Health and Aging Study.

To determine the role of peripheral nerve dysfunction (PND) in the disablement pathway. Vibration perception threshold (VPT) was measured in 894 women aged > or = 65 years, and those with normal peripheral nerve function and with mild, moderate, and severe PND were identified. Lower-extremity impairments included quadriceps strength (kilograms) and three progressively difficult balance tasks (able/unable). Functional limitations included rising from a chair (able/unable) and usual pace and fast-paced walking speeds (meters/second). Level of PND was related to impairments and functional limitations in linear and logistic regression models that controlled for potentially confounding factors, including reported diabetes. Level of PND was associated with impaired balance (adjusted odds ratios: 2.21, 1.95, and 3.02 for mild, moderate, and severe PND, respectively, relative to normal, P < 0.05). PND was also associated with decrements in both usual and fast-paced walking speeds (-0.08, -0.08, and -0.15 m/s for usual pace and -0.13, -0.12, and -0.24 m/s for fast-paced walking speed for women with mild, moderate, and severe PND, respectively; P < 0.01 for all). Reported diabetes was not associated with these outcomes in the presence of PND. Some, but not all, of the association between PND and functional limitations was explained by the relationship between PND and impairments. PND is significantly associated with both lower-extremity impairments and functional limitations in older women, and PND appears to have independent effects on functional limitations. The independent effect of diabetes on these outcomes may be limited when PND is considered. Further research is needed to determine if PND is causally related to disability in old age.