Elite Sport Performance Research Articles

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND DIVISIONAL RANK IN PROFESSIONAL MIXED MARTIAL ARTS

Physiological changes brought about by a person’s aging process are known to negatively affect elite sports performance, but this may be delayed by skill mastery brought about by continued training. The intersection of these two separate processes causes a potential ‘peak performance window’ in many sports. Within MMA it has been shown that older competitors are more likely to lose individual bouts, especially due to strikes, and when they win it is most likely to be due to a decision. It has not been determined whether age has a long-term effect on success in MMA. This study divided the top 100 competitors in each MMA weight division into 5 ranking groups (RG) and used Bayesian ANOVA (BF10), 95% credible interval plots and Bayesian Kendall’s Tau (BF10) to determine if competitor rankings are affected by their age, and if each division displays a different age profile. The results found that whilst there is a general pattern of older participants being ranked higher, middleweight was the only division where this was statistically relevant. It was found, however, that the heavier the mass limit of the division, the older the participants are across each RG. These results suggest that skill mastery may be of more short-term importance to successful performance in MMA than physiological ability, particularly in the heavier divisions, but physiological decrements effect lighter competitors earlier in their chronological age. This is potentially due to differing performance requirements between the different divisions.

A framework for self-determination in massive open online courses: Design for autonomy, competence, and relatedness

In this paper, we propose a framework for the design of massive open online courses (MOOCs) based upon the principles of self-determination theory, which posits a relationship between intrinsic motivation and the basic psychological need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. We also report the results of design-based research that evaluates the application of the framework to a MOOC titled “Elite Sport Performance: Psychological Perspectives”. Satisfying basic psychological needs is theorised as central to course design in order to foster intrinsic motivation, optimise engagement, and improve the retention of course participants. We chronicle the design, implementation, and evaluation of the course, providing examples of support features and learning activities. The course was offered over a period of four months, receiving more than 1000 registrations from across the world. Engagement measures, completion indices, and intrinsic motivation scores are reported as well as sample testimonies from learners. Results offer preliminary evidence that a design framework incorporating self-determination theory has utility in the development of MOOCs that successfully engage learners.

Performance Management: A Systematic Review of Processes in Elite Sport and Other Performance Domains

Performance management is integral for high-performing organizations and teams. The purpose of this review was to synthesize evidence on performance management across elite sport and other performance-focused domains (business, performing arts, high-risk professions). A systematic search and screening strategy was undertaken. Twenty studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. Thematic synthesis enabled the identification of key components of performance management. Similarities and differences between elite sport and other domains are identified across the following themes: strategic performance management, operational performance management, individual performance management, and leadership of the performance team. Implications for practitioners in elite sport are also considered across these themes.

Single leg squat ratings by clinicians are reliable and predict excessive hip internal rotation moment

BackgroundSingle leg squats are commonly used subjective assessments of general biomechanical function, injury risk, as a predictor for recovery and as an outcome measure of rehabilitation. While 3D motion capture is a useful tool for elite sports performance and research it is impractical for routine clinical use. Research questionThis cross-sectional study aims to: assess reliability and validity of clinicians’ subjective ratings of single leg squats compared to 3D motion capture, and to identify whether performance predicts joint moments. Methods22 healthy military volunteers were simultaneously recorded on video and 3D motion capture performing single leg squats. Videos were reviewed twice by 5 physiotherapists rating performance on a 0–5 scale assessing squat depth, hip adduction, pelvic obliquity, pelvic tilt and trunk flexion summated into a composite score. ResultsHip adduction and trunk flexion exhibited moderate to substantial inter- and intra-rater reliability (range κ = 0.408–0.699) other individual criteria were mostly fair (κ ≤ 0.4). Composite scores for inter-rater reliability were ICC(1,1) = 0.419 and ICC(1,κ) = 0.783 and intra-rater reliability were ICC(1,1) = 0.672 and κ(w) = 0.526. Validity against 3D kinematics was poor with only 6/75 individually rated criteria reaching κ > 0.40. Correlation was found between composite scores and hip internal rotation moment (rs = 0.571, p = 0.009). SignificanceRepeated use of single leg squats by a single practitioner is supported. Comparisons between clinicians are unreliable but improved by average measures from multiple raters. Heterogeneous reliability across scoring components suggests a qualitative description of the criteria scored is less ambiguous than using composite scores in a clinical setting. Composite scores may be more useful for analysis at a population level. Poor validity against kinematic data suggests clinicians use additional information upon which they find agreement such as estimating kinetics. Correlation between hip internal rotation moment and subjective ratings may be such an example of clinicians trying to identify excessive abnormal loading.

Coaches’ philosophies on the transfer of strength training to elite sports performance

The objective of the study was to explore coaches’ philosophies regarding strength training (repetitive muscle actions against high loads) and the transfer of strength training to sports performance. Thirteen world class coaches and athletes from track cycling, Bicycle Moto-Cross (BMX), sprint kayaking, rowing and athletics sprinting were interviewed using an open-ended, semi-structured approach. Participants were asked about their coaching philosophies, design of athlete training programmes, strength training and its transfer to sports performance. A thematic analysis was conducted. Data trustworthiness was enhanced by methods of member checking and analyst triangulation. Coaches believed that task-specific strength is essential for sports performance. They reported that non-specific strength training (‘traditional’ gym-based strength exercises that are not specific to a sport movement) is important for increasing athletes’ muscle size and strength. This is typically used in conjunction with resisted sport movement training (for example, increased resistance running, pedalling or rowing), believed to achieve an effective transfer of enhanced muscle strength to sports performance. Coaches described the transfer process as complex, with factors associated with fatigue and coordination having particular significance. The importance that coaches place on coordination is supported by a theoretical model that demonstrates increases in muscle strength from strength training may need to be accompanied with a change in inter-muscular coordination to improve sport performance. The idea that each athlete needs to adapt intermuscular coordination in response to a change in his/her unique set of ‘organism constraints’ (e.g. muscle strength) is well described by the theory of ecological dynamics and Newell’s model of constraints.

Why nature prevails over nurture in the making of the elite athlete

While the influence of nature (genes) and nurture (environment) on elite sporting performance remains difficult to precisely determine, the dismissal of either as a contributing factor to performance is unwarranted. It is accepted that a complex interaction of a combination of innumerable factors may mold a talented athlete into a champion. The prevailing view today is that understanding elite human performance will require the deciphering of two major sources of individual differences, genes and the environment. It is widely accepted that superior performers are endowed with a high genetic potential actualised through hard and prodigious effort. Heritability studies using the twin model have provided the basis to disentangle genetic and environmental factors that contribute to complex human traits and have paved the way to the detection of specific genes for elite sport performance. Yet, the heritability for most phenotypes essential to elite human performance is above 50% but below 100%, meaning that the environment is also important. Furthermore, individual differences can potentially also be explained not only by the impact of DNA sequence variation on biology and behaviour, but also by the effects of epigenetic changes which affect phenotype by modifying gene expression. Despite this complexity, the overwhelming and accumulating evidence, amounted through experimental research spanning almost two centuries, tips the balance in favour of nature in the “nature” and “nurture” debate. In other words, truly elite-level athletes are built – but only from those born with innate ability.

An exploration of shifts in visual fixation prior to the execution of baseball batting: Evidence for oculomotor warm up, attentional processes or pre-performance routines?

The visual performance of athletes should be considered high on the list of variables fundamental to elite sport performance. One particular aspect of visual performance that has gained dominance over the last 25 years is the quiet eye. Quiet eye is the final visual fixation of long, steady duration prior to the execution of a motor skill. However, as the concept of quiet eye has achieved dominance in the field of motor control, we know increasingly less about the visual behavior that precedes the onset of it. This is especially true for externally-paced interceptive tasks such as baseball hitting. The present study collected data on the visual scene using mobile eye trackers, as experienced by 58 professional baseball players during batting practice. The results suggest that athletes exhibit multiple dynamic shifts in visual fixation prior to the onset of quiet eye and the pitcher's action. Furthermore, cluster analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between the number of shifts in visual fixations and batting average, indicating that this visual skill may contribute to more efficient interception of the ball. The purpose of these dynamic shifts in visual fixation are proposed, alongside a call for further research to develop a deeper understanding of this pre-task visual behavior and its role in sport performance.

Le coaching sportif pour un rétablissement psychologique et social : une perspective innovante

This study is a first step towards the transfer of knowledge and practices between psychological support and performance in elite sport and a patient's "social recovery" in oncology. This proposal brings together people engaged in a variety of healthcare and relationship support roles, and aims to set up a support system beyond the hospital context. It questions the ability of elite sport management and its main actors, the "Great Coaches", to contribute to the support of patients in cancer remission through an onco-coaching approach. This innovative proposal is initiated by a life coaching pilot study designed for hematologic cancer patients in remission after a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Overtraining and the complexities of coaches’ decision-making: managing elite athletes on the training cusp

In many elite sport performance contexts, overtraining is a critical issue for coaches to understand, recognise and respond to. While the indicators and effects of overtraining have attracted considerable research interest, there are no diagnostic tests that reliably predict impending overtraining. This study explores the practices and beliefs of three highly successful professional elite rowing coaches as they predict and manage the risk of athlete overtraining during crucial periods of intensive training. These coaches took part in a series of semi-structured interviews that explored their practices, philosophies and experiences. The research draws on sociological perspectives pertinent to coaching pedagogy and, more specifically, the tenets of naturalistic decision-making in exploring how the coaches define and make decisions about overtraining. In doing so it recognizes that coaching involves decision-making in complex and demanding situations. The coaches were found to monitor the fatigue of their rowers through observation, communication and measures of training pace. In general, the intuitions and cues that were used by coaches had little in common with overtraining markers or indicators that are promoted in the sport science literature. Coaches’ decision-making was based largely on subjective information and processes that were influenced by a range of stressors unique to their positions. We contend that the research provides an important new perspective on coaches’ definitions and management of overtraining and enables management of overtraining to be better understood as a key element of coaching pedagogy in elite performance settings. In this article we argue successful coaches have unique insights into this topical area and this is worthy of future exploration.

A Qualitative Exploration of Thriving in Elite Sport

Athletes are often described as thriving in sport; however, extant research on this construct in sport has been divergent. This study aimed to provide the first dedicated exploration of thriving in elite sport performers by considering its characteristics, outcomes, and facilitators. Semistructured interviews (n = 15) were conducted with athletes, coaches, and sport psychology practitioners and were analyzed using applied thematic analysis. Thriving was perceived to comprise a sustained high-level of performance and dimensions of well-being. Furthermore, predominantly positive outcomes of thriving were described, and participants identified a network of personal and contextual enablers that could facilitate thriving.

Investigation of the Relationship Between a Genetic Polymorphism in ACTN3 and Elite Sport Performance Among Iranian Soccer Players

Investigation of the Relationship Between a Genetic Polymorphism in ACTN3 and Elite Sport Performance Among Iranian Soccer Players

스마트기기를 활용한 엘리트 운동선수 경기력 향상 연구동향

스마트기기를 활용한 엘리트 운동선수 경기력 향상 연구동향

Performance and Side Effects of Supplementation with N-Acetylcysteine: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) is a promising antioxidant supplement with potential as an acute strategy to enhance performance in elite sport, but there are concerns about its side effects with high doses. To review the current literature and evaluate the effects of NAC supplementation on sport performance and the risk of adverse effects. The literature up to May 2016 was searched on MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, Google Scholar and Scopus databases to identify all studies investigating the effects of NAC supplementation on exercise performance and/or side effects experienced. Performance outcomes from each study were converted to the percent effect equivalent to mean power output in a time trial. All pooled analyses were based on random-effects models generated by Review Manager (RevMan) [Computer program], version 5.3 (The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, Copenhagen, 2014). A total of seven studies met criteria for inclusion in the sport performance meta-analysis, and 17 for inclusion in the side effects meta-analysis. The typical daily dose of NAC reported was 5.8g·d-1; with a range between 1.2 and 20.0g·d-1. The mean increase in performance was 0.29% (95% confidence interval -0.67 to 1.25). The difference in the odds ratio of side effects on NAC compared with placebo was 1.11 (95% confidence interval 0.88-1.39). The sub-analysis of NAC dose suggested an increase in side effects as the dosage of NAC increased; however, this observation requires further investigation. Despite initial research publications reporting positive performance effects with NAC, at this stage it cannot be recommended further. The risk of side effects from NAC supplementation also remains unclear owing to significant variations in effects. Suboptimal reporting and documentation in the literature creates difficulties when meta-analysing outcomes and generating conclusions.

Assessing Cognitive Performance in Badminton Players: A Reproducibility and Validity Study

Fast reaction and good inhibitory control are associated with elite sports performance. To evaluate the reproducibility and validity of a newly developed Badminton Reaction Inhibition Test (BRIT), fifteen elite (25 ± 4 years) and nine non-elite (24 ± 4 years) Dutch male badminton players participated in the study. The BRIT measured four components: domain-general reaction time, badminton-specific reaction time, domain-general inhibitory control and badminton-specific inhibitory control. Five participants were retested within three weeks on the badminton-specific components. Reproducibility was acceptable for badminton-specific reaction time (ICC = 0.626, CV = 6%) and for badminton-specific inhibitory control (ICC = 0.317, CV = 13%). Good construct validity was shown for badminton-specific reaction time discriminating between elite and non-elite players (F = 6.650, p < 0.05). Elite players did not outscore non-elite players on domain-general reaction time nor on both components of inhibitory control (p > 0.05). Concurrent validity for domain-general reaction time was good, as it was associated with a national ranking for elite (p = 0.70, p < 0.01) and non-elite (p = 0.70, p < 0.05) players. No relationship was found between the national ranking and badminton-specific reaction time, nor both components of inhibitory control (p > 0.05). In conclusion, reproducibility and validity of inhibitory control assessment was not confirmed, however, the BRIT appears a reproducible and valid measure of reaction time in badminton players. Reaction time measured with the BRIT may provide input for training programs aiming to improve badminton players’ performance.

A culture of striving augments use of working memory? Implications for attention control.

Critically, a culture of striving was credited with a positive influence on a range of issues relevant to elite sports performance, including performance under pressure. Of the six athletes who did not reveal a culture of striving, five reported the greatest difficulty performing in high-pressure situations. We suspect that a culture of striving facilitates the development of attention control ability, which subsequently assists performance under pressure. We discuss attention control from the perspective of working memory and hypothesize that a culture of striving trains individuals to maximize their working memory capacity.

The impact of technology on elite sports performance

The use of technological applications is now widespread across many major sports science disciplines and the adoption of these tools to gain a 'competitive advantage' is an increasingly important feature of elite sports. These innovations have shaped the way data is collected and processed, how information is relayed between coaches and staff or to athletes, and has had a big impact on the way in which athletes are monitored in the daily training and competition environments. This review highlights and provides examples of some of the latest technologies for data collection and processing, feedback methods and training tools. We finish by discussing some considerations for sports scientists and coaches before implementing new technologies.

Perceptions of Engaging With a Super-Strengths Approach in Elite Sport

Strengths-based approaches (underpinned by positive psychology) are scarcely documented in sport. This study explored perceptions of a strengths-based approach (termed super-strengths) on psychological characteristics and performance in elite sport. Semistructured interviews were conducted with athletes (N = 12) who had previous experience of working with a sport psychology practitioner on super-strengths. Thematic analysis of the data indicated that super-strengths had a positive influence on athletes’ mind-set, confidence (e.g., self-belief), clarity of purpose (e.g., goal direction), drive, coping ability, and performance. Findings highlight the potential benefits of adopting strengths-based approaches in sport, and recommendations for future research are provided.

Commentary: The Dark Side of Top Level Sport: An Autobiographic Study of Depressive Experiences in Elite Sport Performers.

This intriguing article explored a challenging topic using a novel albeit somewhat controversial methodology. This commentary is made from the perspective of an applied sports psychology practitioner who has conducted qualitative research, with the primary focus on how this informs best practice in consulting with athletes.

Training for Elite Sport Performance: Injury Risk Management Also Matters!

No abstract available for this article.

Sports-related testing protocols are required to reveal trunk stability adaptations in high-level athletes

Trunk/core stability is considered a key component of training programs, because it could contribute to prevention of low-back and lower-limb injuries and to sports performance. Based on the specificity principle, sports-related trunk stability tests would be required in elite sports performance. However, there may be some generic qualities underlying trunk stability that can be assessed with nonspecific protocols, which are broadly used in sport and rehabilitation. To assess whether specific tests are needed in a high-performance context, we analyzed the influence of specialization in sports with large but qualitatively different balance control demands (judo and kayaking) on trunk stability and compared high-performance athletes with recreational athletes without a specific training history. Twenty-five judokas, sixteen kayakers and thirty-seven recreational athletes performed two trunk stability protocols: sudden loading, to assess trunk responses to external and unexpected perturbations; stable and unstable sitting, to assess the participant’s ability to control trunk while sitting. Within-session test-retest reliability analyses were performed to support the between-groups comparison. Judokas showed lower angular displacement (0.199rad) against posterior loading than kayakers (0.221rad) probably because they are frequently challenged by higher sudden loads while they are pushed or pulled. Kayakers showed lower error (<6.12mm) of center of pressure displacements than judokas especially during dynamic task while sitting on an unstable seat (>7.33mm), probably because they train and compete seated on unstable surfaces. Importantly, judokas and kayakers obtained better results than recreational athletes only in those tests designed according to the specific demands of each sport (p<0.050). In conclusion, specific-sport training induces specific trunk stability adaptations, which are not revealed through nonspecific tests.