Baseball Performance Research Articles

Comparison of the Effects of Compound Training, Plyometric Exercises, and Kettlebell Exercises on Strength, Power, Dynamic Balance, and Pitched Ball Velocity in 30 Male High School Baseball Pitchers Aged 16-19 Years.

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to determine how the combination of plyometric training (PT), which builds strength through fast, repetitive extensions and contractions, and kettlebell training (KT), using a device that is smaller than a barbell and allows for strength and full-body work, affects the physical performance and performance of high school pitchers during the season. MATERIAL AND METHODS Participants (n=30 males; age group=16-19 years) were randomized into 3 groups: compound training group (CTG) (n=10), plyometric training group (PTG) (n=10), and kettlebell group (KTG) (n=10). All groups performed training twice weekly for 4 weeks. Pre- and post-intervention assessments were conducted on isokinetic strength to measure strength, vertical jump (VJ) to measure power, dynamic balance (Y-balance), and ball speed (BS) to measure baseball performance. RESULTS We found there was increased strength, VJ, Y-balance, and BS in the CTG, PTG, and KTG (p=.000). CTG had significantly different results than PTG and KTG (p=.000). There was a significant difference in increased strength of the right knee joint flexors between PTG and KTG (p=.000). CONCLUSIONS CTG, PTG, and KTG for pitchers during the season improved significantly. These results suggest that combination training, rather than just 1 type of training, affects pitchers' strength, VJ, Y-balance, and BS during the season.

A Framework for Using Virtual Reality to Enhance Psychological Performance in Baseball

Virtual reality (VR) has become an increasingly popular tool for use in sports, particularly with regards to enhancing the psychological performance of athletes. Despite this, a systematic approach in exactly how sporting organizations can apply the technology appears to be lacking. This paper proposes the Baseball Framework for Applying Virtual Reality (Baseball-FAVR) which aims to guide practitioners within professional baseball as to how, when, and with whom VR can be used to enhance the performance of their players. The framework outlines six specific use cases which are reflected by their suggested prioritization at each affiliate level from Major League down to Rookie (newly drafted to an organization). It is hoped that the Baseball-FAVR will enable baseball organizations to take advantage of the many potential benefits that VR technology offers to the sport.

Strength, speed, and anthropometric predictors of in-game batting performance in baseball

ABSTRACT A key focus of sports science research is the identification of quantitative assessments that can predict players’ on-field performance and developmental potential. Despite efforts to establish predictive models, there are few validated measures that show reliable associations and large gaps in understanding. Here, we test a multidimensional battery of assessments developed through the USA Baseball, Prospect Development Pipeline that capture strength and functional movement abilities, and anthropometric characteristics, in a two-year cohort of collegiate baseball players from the Appalachian League. Swing propensity metrics for Zone Contact Percentage (ZCP: proportion pitches in strike zone swung at and hit) and Hard-Hit Percentage (HHP: proportion in-play balls with exit velocity ≥ 95 mph) were calculated on 189 players. Models testing hierarchical combinations of anthropometric and anthropometric plus assessment data were implemented using nested cross-validation with random forest and elastic net regression. Results indicate that anthropometric features account for 29% of variance in ZCP and 50–55% of HHP, while the addition of assessment contributed an additional 1–3% to ZCP and 5–12% to HHP, with top predictors coming from PDP strength and power assessments. These findings delineate contributions of andromorphic and physical abilities to in-game baseball performance using a validated assessment battery and advanced game statistics.

Classifying batted ball outcomes from Division I collegiate baseball players

ABSTRACT Modern technology challenges anecdotal beliefs on baseball performance. The study’s purpose examines these beliefs by classifying batted ball outcomes. Three categories of independent variables (anthropometry, in-game situation, technique-based), from 1,922 batted ball outcomes produced by 230 players, were used to classify the likelihood of hits during 2021 college baseball games. Anthropometry included player’s heights and weights. In-game situation entailed batter side, same side, ahead count, and pitch type. Technique-based variables measured by TrackMan radar included exit speed (ExSp), launch angle (LA), batted ball distance (BBD), and hang time (HT). Binary logistic regression analysis was performed with batted ball outcome as the dependent variable. Independent variables provided a good fit (χ2 (10) = 522.358, p < 0.01) and correctly classified nearly three-fourths of outcomes. Height (β = 0.030, p < 0.05), ExSp (β = 0.023, p < 0.05), LA (β = 0.028, p < 0.01), and BBD (β = 0.067, p < 0.01) each had significant positive associations, yet HT (β = –1.661, p < 0.01) had a significant negative association, with batted ball outcomes. TrackMan provided four significant independent variables. Anthropometry’s contribution to batting outcome was modest, while in-game situation’s impact was non-significant; results contradict anecdotal beliefs of their importance.

The Contribution of Lower-Body Kinematics to Pitching and Hitting Performance in Baseball: Utilizing the OpenBiomechanics Project.

As markerless motion capture systems become more affordable than ever, it is becoming far easier to collect and analyze kinematic data on baseballers. To ensure this data can be used impactfully, coaches and practitioners should possess a good understanding of specific technique characteristics that are associated with enhanced performance in pitchers and hitters. This study used the open-source data provided by Driveline Baseball's OpenBiomechanics Project to evaluate the contribution of lower-body kinematics to pitch velocity and bat speed. In addition to correlational analyses to examine the association between discrete kinematic variables and performance, statistical nonparametric mapping was used to compare slow and fast velocity groups across the entirety of pitching and hitting motions from peak knee height to ball release/contact. It was found that rotation of the trail leg and extension of the lead knee were both associated with performance in pitchers and hitters. Consequently, coaches and practitioners should ensure that individuals possess an adequate level of strength and flexibility to facilitate optimal movement of the trail hip and lead knee during pitching and hitting movements. If deficiencies exist, then training programs should be designed to address these issues and eventually bring about an improvement in performance.

Predictors of batting and pitching performance in the USA baseball prospect development pipeline

ABSTRACT This study examined the relationship between psychomotor abilities and baseball performance by analysing data from 379 athletes who participated in the USA Baseball, Prospect Development Pipeline (PDP). Hit and pitch metrics were generated during practice sessions using the RapsodoTM System. Data were compared through exploratory factor analysis and hierarchical regression. Factor analysis grouped batter’s PDP evaluations into four latent variables accounting for 63% of variance. Pitcher performance grouped into three factors accounting for 51% of variance. Regression on batter data revealed a significant demographic/anthropometric base model with height, weight, and age that accounted for 58% of the batted ball speed (R2 = 0.581). Player position explained 2% of the variance (R2 = 0.604), and PDP evaluation scores contributed an additional 3% (R2 = 0.631). Regression of pitcher data showed a significant base demographic/anthropometric model accounting for 36% of fastball pitch speeds (R2 = 0.363), with the PDP evaluation scores adding 6% additional variance (R2 = 0.424). Uniformly, assessments of lower body strength added the greatest predictive information. Hand grip strength did not correlate with pitch metrics. While demographics/anthropometrics are major contributors to batted and pitched ball speed, position and psychomotor variables add statistically significant contributions and may be of practical value for player selection.

Does Air Travel Adversely Affect Team Performance in Major League Baseball?

Previous studies of the effects of air travel on team performance in baseball focused on jet lag, namely, teams that traveled across at least two time zones between games. But baseball teams that travel extensively up and down either the West or East Coast do not cross one (let alone two) time zones. For the years between 2019 and 2022 (including the COVID-19 pandemic-shortened 2020 season), the authors relate the difference between a team’s season-long winning percentage at home less its winning percentage on the road to the total regular season-long number of miles traveled for the 15 teams in each league. Save for a pair of teams in the American League in 2020, the authors find that there is no statistically discernible relationship between the number of miles traveled per season and the difference between home and away team win percentages.

Proximal Chain Strength and Coordination Concepts to Maximize Injury Protection and Transfer of Training Effects for Competitive Baseball Players

ABSTRACT Proximal injuries involving the core, intercostal musculature, and spine are the third leading cause of playing time loss in professional baseball. Long seasons and rotational unilaterality from hitting, throwing, and pitching exposes athletes to overuse risks, including disc herniation, spondyloses, spondylosis, facet joint syndromes, and pars lumbar fractures. This article describes injury epidemiology, rotational biomechanics including energy transfer dynamics, and offers injury prevention insights with minimal equipment. Ultimately, the goal of this article is to provide concepts to improve strength and coordination in training to offer greater injury protection and performance in baseball. For a video abstract of this article, see Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A382.

The Relationships Between Neural Activity and In-Game Hitting Performance in Baseball.

The current study examines the relationships between hitters' neural activity and their in-game hitting performance. Collegiate baseball players completed a computerized video task assessing whether thrown pitches were balls or strikes while their neural activity was recorded. In addition, each player's hitting statistics were collected for the following baseball season. Results showed that neural activity during the computerized task was associated with in-game hitting performance, even after accounting for other individual difference variables. These findings indicate that players' neural activity measured in a laboratory environment shows a translational relationship with in-game hitting performance over time. Neural activity provides a more objective analysis of players' ongoing self-regulatory processes during hitting and a better understanding of the cognitive processes associated with hitting performance. Self-regulatory cognitive control is adaptable and trainable, and this research advances the measurement of cognitive variables related with in-game hitting performance in baseball.

Anthropometric Evaluation of First Round Draft Selections in Major League Baseball.

Crotin, RL, Conforti, CM, Szymanski, DJ, and Oseguera, J. Anthropometric Evaluation of first round draft selections in Major League Baseball. J Strength Cond Res 37(8): 1609-1615, 2023-Physical stature effects on future Major League Baseball (MLB) performance and player evaluation are not known among amateurs. Amateur athletes with greater stature were expected to perform at a higher MLB level, play first base or catcher, be drafted earlier, begin earlier MLB careers, and receive higher signing bonuses compared with lower stature players. Publicly available high-school amateur data on 319 first round player selections from 2005 to 2015 identified athletes' body mass, heights, and body mass index (BMI) to determine impacts on MLB Wins Above Replacement (WAR) ratings, draft selection number, signing bonuses, position, educational background, innings pitched, and plate appearances before making an MLB debut. Student t tests split sample data above and below the median to examine mean differences for body mass, height, and BMI, whereas one-way analysis of variance with Bonferroni correction calculated first round selection groups and positional differences in anthropometry at an a priori alpha level of p ≤ 0.05. First basemen and catchers had the highest BMI of all positions ( p < 0.05, d > 0.80), high-school signees had higher BMI than collegiate signees during high-school years ( p < 0.03, d > 0.05), the first 5 selections had higher BMI than the last 5 selections in the first round ( p < 0.05, d = 0.38), all with moderate-to-large effects. High-school pitchers with less body mass reached the MLB level in less innings than heavier pitchers ( p < 0.001, d = 0.62). No anthropometric differences were seen in player WAR ratings. Results indicate a scouting preference toward high-school athletes with greater BMI, yet high-school anthropometrics seem to not influence future MLB performance.

部活動でのPBLの実践が高校生の運動パフォーマンスと社会人基礎力に及ぼす影響

This study tested the hypothesis that the practice of a training plan, devised by the players themselves using project-based learning (PBL) in club activities, can enhance athletic performance as well as the fundamental competencies for working persons (FCWP) among high school (HS) students. HS baseball players attempted PBL for three months. They participated in a baseball performance test and filled out an FCWP questionnaire before (Pre) and after (Post) PBL. The pitching and batting performance and some factors of FCWP score tended to increase in Post compared with Pre. The results suggest that the practice of a training plan designed by the HS baseball players themselves through PBL enhanced not only their baseball performance, but also their FCWP.

The Relationship between Cognition, Preseason Hitting Assessments, and In-Game Batting Performance in Collegiate Baseball and Softball Players

The Relationship between Cognition, Preseason Hitting Assessments, and In-Game Batting Performance in Collegiate Baseball and Softball Players

Influence of Hot Environment on Pitching and Hitting Performance in Professional Baseball

Huang, J-H, Chiu, Y-C, and Chang, C-K. The influence of hot environment on pitching and hitting performance in professional baseball. J Strength Cond Res 35(11): 3251-3255, 2021-Baseball is usually played outdoors during the warmest months of the year. The long exposure to a hot environment may lead to hyperthermia and subsequent impaired cognitive function, which is crucial for hitting and pitching performance in baseball. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of apparent temperature on pitching and hitting performance in Chinese Professional Baseball League games in Taiwan. Each pitched and batted ball from a total of 480 regular season games in 2018 and 2019 was analyzed. Each game was categorized into one of the 4 groups on the basis of the average apparent temperature at which it was played: cold (below 21° C), warm (21-28° C), hot (28-34° C), or extremely hot (above 34° C). Differences in pitching and hitting variables were compared across the 4 groups. In the extremely hot environment, slugging percentage, isolated power, base on balls per 9 innings, home runs per 9 innings, and walks plus hits per inning were all significantly higher than those in the other 3 environments. The results suggest that offensive production was significantly increased in extremely hot environments in the Chinese Professional Baseball League. It is recommended that pitchers could adopt cooling interventions to alleviate the decline in performance in an extremely hot environment.

한국프로야구 선수들의 연봉 적절성: 자유계약 선수를 중심으로

본 연구는 노동경제학의 임금결정이론을 기반으로 한국프로야구 자유계약선수들의 기록을 바탕으로 추정된 한계수입생산성과 실제 연봉을 비교하였다. 2000년부터 2018년까지의 패널자료를 구축하여 개별 선수의 한계수입생산성을 실증적으로 분석하였다. 먼저 Scully(1974)의 모형을 한국프로야구에 적용하여 팀 승률 방정식과 팀 수익 방정식을 식별하였다. 다중회귀분석을 통해 타자와 투수 성적지표가 팀 승리에 미치는 영향력을 추정하고, 팀 승리가 총 수익에 미치는 영향력을 추정하였다. 최신 세이버메트릭스 지표를 설명변수로 사용하여 모형의 강건성을 검토하였다. 팀 승률 회귀모형식과 팀 수익 회귀모형식 추정치로부터 개별 선수의 한계수입생산성을 도출하였으며, 이대호 선수와 양현종 선수의 연도별 성적을 이용하여 조정된 연봉 추정치와 실제 연봉을 비교하였다.

Effects of functional movement screen training in high-school baseball players: A randomized controlled clinical trial.

Background:In recent years, the functional movement screen (FMS) and FMS training have attracted attention as a means of preventing injury, but no studies have examined the effect of such training in high-school baseball players. The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of FMS training on FMS score, physical function and baseball performance in high-school baseball players.Methods:Subjects in this randomized controlled clinical trial were high-school male baseball players assigned to either an FMS training group (intervention group) or a control group. The intervention group performed FMS training 4 times per week for 12 weeks. FMS ability, physical function, and baseball performance were measured prior to the intervention, 8, 12, and 24 weeks after the intervention in the subjects’ school environment.Results:A total of 71 baseball players aged 15 to 17 years were recruited and assigned to either an intervention group (n = 37) or control group (n = 34). There was no significant difference in the characteristics of participants between the 2 groups. Most FMS scores improved to 12 weeks after continued training. In the intervention group compared with the control group, deep squat, hurdle step, inline lunge, active straight leg raise, trunk stability push-up and rotary stability FMS score, total FMS score and eyes closed single leg stance time significantly increased after 8 weeks of training. While hurdle step, inline lunge, active straight leg raise, trunk stability push-up, total FMS score, and eyes closed single leg stance time significantly increased, pitching ball speed significantly decreased at the end of the 12 week training period. Eyes closed single leg stance time and feeling of fatigue significantly improved 12 weeks after training. The number of subjects who scored less than 14 for the total FMS score in the intervention group compared with control group were significantly less after 8 and 12 weeks of FMS training.Conclusion:FMS training for 8 weeks contributes to improving FMS scores for high-school baseball players, but FMS scores go down if FMS training is not continued.Trial registration:University Hospital Medical Information Network Center, Tokyo, Japan: UMIN000027553. Registered on May 30, 2017.

Baseball performance via the lens of anthropometric testing, fitness metrics, and statistics: a longitudinal cross-sectional study

Background: Anthropometric testing (AT) and fitness metrics (FM) are contributing factors for success in sports. Limited evidence exists regarding longitudinal baseball AT or FM roles on baseball performance statistics (PS). AT, FM, and PS associations were examined for 5 yr to create a performance model. Methods: Eighty collegiate Division I players participated in this study. Height, mass, and body fat percentage (BF%) were selected as AT variables of interest. Grip strength (GS), one repetition maximum squat (1RMSQ), and vertical-jump height were selected for FM. Batting average percentage (AVG), slugging percentage (SLG), on-base percentage (OBP) baseball statistics were selected as offensive PS. Earned run average (ERA), batting average against percentage (B/AVG), and strike-out per innings pitched for 9 innings (SO/IP)*9 were selected for defensive PS. Results: Offensive (r=−0.15, P&lt;0.005; rs=−0.17, P&lt;0.001) and defensive (r=−0.253, P&lt;0.001; rs=−0.314, P&lt;0.001) statistics correlated with BF%. Offensive (r=0.26, P&lt;0.001; rs=0.43, P&lt;0.001) and defensive (r=0.39, P&lt;0.001) statistics correlated with GS. Offensive (r=0.26, P&lt;0.001; rs=0.43, P&lt;0.001) and defensive (r=0.27, P&lt;0.001) statistics correlated with 1RMSQ. Offensive statistics AVG (R2=0.48) and SLG (R2=0.46) were explained by 1RMSQ. For defensive statistics, 1RMSQ was the best fit for (SO/IP)*9 (R2=0.43) and B/AVG (R2=0.52), and GS was the best fit for ERA (R2=0.39). Squat and time interaction for B/AVG was significant (P=0.04). Conclusions: Baseball PS are associated with 1RMSQ and GS. Time moderates the effect of squat training on B/AVG. Pitchers need to include squats to lower their B/AVG. Coaches may focus on improving such FM variables and consider the time effect on selected FM that may affect PS. Level of Evidence: Level IV

Offseason Workout Recommendations for Baseball Players.

Offseason training programs are crucial for the baseball athlete. Preparation for the competitive season should be carefully planned to allow long-term athletic success. The two goals of the offseason training program are to optimize performance and reduce injury risk. These goals can only be accomplished with an understanding of the unique physical demands of the sport, and how these demands relate to performance and injury. The purpose of this article is to review the unique demands of baseball training along with current strength and conditioning principles to optimize offseason training for the baseball athlete. Traditional strength and conditioning programs used in other sports may not maximize the qualities necessary for optimal baseball performance. Traditional strength and conditioning exercises, such as squat and deadlift, primarily train sagittal plane movement while frontal and transverse plane movements are likely equally as important for baseball players. Biomechanical studies have shown that trunk rotation power has the largest influence on throwing velocity in pitchers. Programs should also be designed to reduce injury risk for common injuries. The most common injuries in baseball include hamstring strains, throwing arm injuries, paralumbar muscle strains, hip adductor strains, and oblique muscle strains. This review describes the typical periodization phases of the offseason and provides a sample program outlining an offseason program for a professional baseball player from September through February.

A Mixed Effects Multinomial Logistic-Normal Model for Forecasting Baseball Performance

Prediction of player performance is a key component in the construction of baseball team rosters. Traditionally, the problem of predicting seasonal plate appearance outcomes has been approached univariately. That is, focusing on each outcome separately rather than jointly modeling the collection of outcomes. More recently, there has been a greater emphasis on joint modeling, thereby accounting for the correlations between outcomes. However, most of these state of the art prediction models are the proprietary property of teams or industrial sports entities and so little is available in open publications.This dissertation introduces a joint modeling approach to predict seasonal plate appearance outcome vectors using a mixed-e ffects multinomial logistic-normal model. This model accounts for positive and negative correlations between outcomes both across and within player seasons. It is also applied to the important, yet unaddressed, problem of predicting performance for players moving between the Japanese and American major leagues.This work begins by motivating the methodological choices through a comparison of state of the art procedures followed by a detailed description of the modeling and estimation approach that includes model t assessments. We then apply the method to longitudinal multinomial count data of baseball player-seasons for players moving between the Japanese and American major leagues and discuss the results. Extensions of this modeling framework to other similar data structures are also discussed.

A mixed effects multinomial logistic-normal model for forecasting baseball performance

Abstract Prediction of player performance is a key component in the construction of baseball team rosters. As a result, most prediction models are the proprietary property of team or industrial sports entities, and little is known about them. Of those models that have been published, the main focus has been to separately model each outcome with nearly no emphasis on uncertainty quantification. This research introduces a joint modeling approach to predict seasonal plate appearance outcome vectors using a mixed-effects multinomial logistic-normal model. This model accounts for positive and negative correlations between outcomes, both across and within player seasons, and provides a joint posterior predictive outcome distribution from which uncertainty can be quantified. It is applied to the important, yet unaddressed, problem of predicting performance for players moving between the Japanese (NPB) and American (MLB) major leagues.

Nutrition education programme changes food intake and baseball performance in high-school students

Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of nutrition education programme using the Convenient, Attractive, Normative (CAN) framework to facilitate changes in mindset, attitudes and behaviours towards food among high-school male baseball players. Design: Quasi-experimental design. Setting: Two public high schools in Osaka, Japan. Methods: Students in two high schools (mean age ± SD, 16.6 ± .5 years) participated in the study. One school served as an intervention group ( n = 28) and received the CAN nutrition education programme. The other school served as a control group ( n = 22), and students within it did not receive the intervention. Students in the intervention group received three nutrition lecture sessions and face-to-face individual nutritional guidance over a 4 month intervention period. Before and after the intervention, all students were asked to record their food and beverage intake by taking food pictures, recording portion weights and sending these to the project dietitian. They were also asked to develop a dietary behaviour plan for meeting their goals. At the end of the intervention, they were asked about their experiences. Results: Students in the intervention improved their food intake, dietary balance and athletic performance. Bat swing speed was significantly faster following the intervention. Body weight increased without changing lean body mass in both groups. Conclusion: Results suggest that a CAN nutrition education programme may be effective in increasing motivation and promote dietary behaviour change among male adolescent athletes. Future interventions should examine these motivational processes and investigate the factors contributing to well-balanced meals.