Perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls Research Articles

Hysteresis behavior of Auxetic Perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls with elliptical and peanut-shaped cutouts

Although auxetic (negative Poisson’s ratio) materials and structures have unique mechanical properties, their application in earthquake-resistant structures is rarely reported. This paper proposed a novel Auxetic Perforated Steel Plate Shear Wall (AP-SPSW) for seismic mitigation in building structures. The AP-SPSW incorporates the unique mechanical properties of auxetic materials and structures to reduce out-of-plane buckling and improve seismic performance of SPSWs. Both elliptical and peanut-shaped perforation configurations were proposed for the AP-SPSW. Through small-scale numerical simulations of the auxetic unit cells, the deformation mode of the auxetic perforated material was discussed and a preliminary design was presented to ensure the materials with negative Poisson’s ratio. In addition, ten AP-SPSW specimens were prepared for cyclic loading tests, which demonstrated that the AP-SPSW possesses stable hysteresis behavior and excellent energy dissipation capacity. Key parameters affecting the hysteresis performance of the AP-SPSW were identified as porosity of the perforated panel and thickness of the ligament between neighboring perforations. This study also focused on the global shear buckling behavior of the auxetic perforated panel plates. It was found that the auxetic deformation mechanism benefits shear buckling resistance in the SPSW panel. Finally, an analytical model was proposed for the shear strength of the auxetic panel. The limitations of this study were also discussed, along with the work required for further exploration. The results of this study provide valuable insights for the development of innovative seismic-resistant structures that incorporate auxetic materials and structures.

Finite element model evolution of perforated steel plate shear walls under cyclic loading

A linked mathematical-informational model to approximate the Force-Drift relationship of surrounding perforated steel plate shear walls under monotonic and cyclic loading is proposed. The proposed model has three physical parameters, along with two curve-fitted factors. These physical parameters are generated from dimensional details and material properties of the shear wall. In this study, two different methods are suggested to consider the intricate hysteretic behavior of perforated shear walls. To use the benefits of both mathematical and informational presentations, a novel method, a linked modeling skeleton, is created and demonstrated through representing the complex hysteretic behavior of perforated shear walls. Hysteretic models are mathematical models capable of simulating the complex nonlinear behavior characterizing mechanical systems and materials used in different fields of civil structures. The model yields acceptable results in good agreement with actual shear wall behavior. Besides, comparison between the presented model and other existing equations, in prediction of the perforated shear wall’s F–D curve, shows the reasonably accurate results of the proposed model.

Numerical study of perforated steel plate shear walls in staggered pattern

Steel plate shear walls (SPSW) consist of steel plates that are directly connected to columns and beams. The steel plate used as the filler is a thin and slender. One option to reduce the steel plate capacity is to provide perforations in the web plate. In this study, the parameters analysed were the influence of the perforation area on the arrangement of the staggered hole patterns on the steel plate panel. This study uses a numerical method. The result of the research is an analysis that explains the relationship between the percentage of perforation area on the load capacity and the stiffness degradation of the steel plate shear walls. The steel plate model is given a circular perforation with a diameter of 50 mm. The specimens were analysed at different number of perforations with a plate thickness of 1 and 2 mm. The results showed that every enhancement number of perforations, the load capacity and elastic stiffness will decrease. Changing the plate thickness from 2 mm to 1 mm, the load capacity also decreases. The initial stress distribution occurs on the diagonal side of the shear wall plate and then spreads to all parts of the shear wall plate.

On the Seismic Evaluation of Steel Frames Laterally Braced with Perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls Considering Semi-Rigid Connections

Steel plate shear walls usually do not satisfy the strong-column weak-beam design criteria, leading to larger column sections. On the other hand, rigid frame structures are typically constructed in low-rise to mid-rise buildings built in locations prone to strong earthquakes due to their high flexibility and cost-effective solutions. Overcoming these restrictions to the SPSW system, this paper is dedicated to employing a semi-rigid connection that dissipates energy well and reduces the forces applied to the structure. By using a semi-rigid connection in an adjacent span to the SPSW, the actual flexural capacity of the beam end decreases and, subsequently, improves the performance of the structure in terms of the of the strong-column weak-beam criteria. Thereupon, the impact of the semi-rigid connections on steel frames with SPSWs as a sideway resisting system can be assessed by implementing a numerical study. In this paper, a new methodology for modelling semi-rigid joints is used considering five connections with different moment capacities. Moreover, the influence of three different circular diameters on the behavior of the perforated SPSWs was investigated. To fulfil these purposes, nonlinear dynamic analysis was conducted to assess the reliability of 5-, 10-, and 15-story frames resisted with SPSWs and semi-rigid connections subjected to actual ground motion records. A total of 45 frames were modelled and the obtained results were compared with reference benchmarks. The outcomes of the studies show good agreement with design building code requirements. In addition, the reliable performance of the structure under seismic loads is evaluated. According to the results of the parametric study, the presumed allowable drift leads to obtaining the optimum moment capacity of connection for each model and illustrates the applicability of a new structural system consisting of SPSWs and semi-rigid connections simultaneously.

Shake table testing of perforated steel plate shear wall having light gauge bolted infill panels

This paper presents the results of an exploratory study performed to examine the potential of using bolted connections between perforated infill panels and the boundary elements of steel plate shear walls. Perforated infill panels have the advantage over solid infills in that these panels can be detailed to minimize the forces imposed to the panel connections and surrounding boundary members. Furthermore, addition of perforations will accommodate the use of thicker perforated infill panels where solid infill thinner panels may not be practical. For such applications, bolted connections can be used to improve the replaceability of the web panels after a strong earthquake to facilitate rapid repairability. Hence, the combination of bolted connections with perforated infill panels could lead to an overall effective design solution for steel plate shear walls. This paper presents the results of a shake table test program on one-third scale three-story specimens as a proof of concept on the use of bolted perforated infill panels. The experimental results are compared to those obtained with conventional solid infill panels welded to the boundary elements. The results demonstrated that perforated SPSWs with slip-resistant bolted infill panels of thin cold-formed steel can provide a hysteretic behavior and seismic performance comparable to SPSWs having with conventional solid infill panels with welded connections.

Nonlinear seismic analysis of perforated steel plate shear walls using a macro-model

Steel plate shear wall (SPSW) with regularly spaced circular perforations has recently been developed. While the current edition of AISC 341-16 and CSA S16-14 have adopted perforated SPSW (P-SPSW) in their design standards, no simple numerical model is currently available for analyzing this SPSW system. A reliable macro-model is developed for regularly spaced circular perforations. The proposed macro-model is validated against available experimental results. Performance of three multi-storey (4-, 7-, and 10-storey) perforated SPSWs designed according to CSA S16-14 and NBCC 2015 is further investigated through conducting a series of time history analyses using a suite of 44 ground motions developed for western Canada. When compared with seismic analysis results of solid SPSWs, it is observed that the median shear envelopes for P-SPSWs are slightly less than that for solid ones. Also, in comparison to solid SPSW archetypes, the contribution of boundary columns in resisting the storey shear is found higher than the infill plate in most of the stories in P-SPSW archetypes. Finally, a sensitivity assessment is performed to evaluate the effect of perforation diameter on different responses of P-SPSWs, such as peak column axial forces, peak column bending moments, and maximum interstorey drift. It is observed that with an increase in the hole diameter, column axial force demand decreases, while the bending moment remains almost the same. Also, since adding perforations to the infill plate reduces the stiffness and strength of the P-SPSW system, the interstorey drift ratio is increased in comparison to solid SPSW.

Theoretical investigation of the middle panel in steel plate shear walls with two rectangular openings

The perforated steel plate shear wall is one of the different lateral load resisting systems. The steel plate shear wall system contains two rectangular openings, the middle panel between two openings has a major role in the energy absorption. In this paper, considering the middle panel similar to the link-beam of EBF and reviewing the existing theoretical formulas for anticipating the middle panel behavior, a new condition related to the stiffness of web plate and stiffeners, which are located on the surrounding opening is added. The results show that the new added condition helps better identify the behavior of the middle panel and to separate the boundaries of behavior type. In addition, a formula with high accuracy is determined to calculate the shape factor of a section with box-shaped flanges. Furthermore, in accordance with obtained diagrams from triple conditions, the effects of six dimension parameters on the behavior of the middle panel are investigated and the bounds of changing the behavior type of the middle panel are determined. The results of the theoretical study show that the 64% increase in width, 47%, and 32% decrease in height and plate thickness of middle panel respectively and 100%, 14%, and 122% increase in height of web, flange width, and thickness of box stiffeners respectively changed the behavior type of middle panel from flexural-dominant to shear-dominant. These obtained results were calculated only in the case of examining the relevant parameters.

Seismic behavior of thin cold-formed steel plate shear walls with different perforation patterns

Thin perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls (SPSWs) are among the most common types of seismic energy dissipation systems to protect the main boundary components of SPSWs from fatal fractures in the high-risk zones. In this paper, the cyclic behavior of the different circular hole patterns under cyclic loading is reported. Based on the experimental results, it can be concluded that a change in the perforation pattern of the circular holes leads to a change in the locations of the fracture tendency over the web plate, especially at the plate-frame interactions. Accordingly, the cyclic responses of the tested specimens were simulated by finite element method using the ABAQUS package. Likewise, perforated shear panels with a new perforation pattern obtained by implementing Topology Optimization (TO) were proposed. It was found that the ultimate shear strength of the specimen with the proposed TO perforation pattern was higher than that of the other specimens. In addition, theoretical equations using the Plate-Frame Interaction (PFI) method were used to predict the shear strength and initial stiffness of the considered specimens. The theoretical results showed that the proposed reduced coefficients relationships cannot accurately predict the shear strength and initial stiffness of the considered perforated shear panels. Therefore, the reduced coefficients should be adopted in the theoretical equations based on the obtained experimental and numerical results. Finally, with the results of this study, the shear strength and initial stiffness of these types of perforated shear panels can be predicted by PFI method.

Numerical assessment of effect of opening on behavior of perforated steel shear walls

The steel plate shear wall (SPSW) system showed satisfactory behavior during two powerful earthquakes of Northridge, United States, and Kobe, Japan, as well as laboratory tests; hence, its application in earthquake-prone countries has increased. In order to overcome construction issues and accelerate the buckling of the stiffening plates of these steel walls, the idea of using perforated steel plate shear walls has been proposed. In addition, in many cases, due to architectural demands and utility passage, openings are created in these walls. In this paper, the behavior of SPSWs with perforated panels is investigated. In order to conduct a parametric study, the effect of circular and elliptic openings in the steel panel of the shear walls, as well as the arrangement, layout, and number of these openings on the structural behavior, has been examined in terms of the energy absorption level, the total load-carrying capacity of the system (hysteresis curve), and also the resulting stress distribution. The finite element ABAQUS software was used to model the specimens. The results of the parametric study on 17 finite element models under cyclic loading in the form of displacement indicated that in general, as the opening percentage increased, the shear capacity and the energy absorption level of the wall experienced significant reduction, with a mean 20% reduction in the energy absorption capacity by increasing the opening percentage ten-fold from 1.45 to 14.5%. Moreover, in case of the same opening percentage, the models with horizontal elliptic holes generally had the highest shear capacity, followed by models with circular openings.

Effect of geometrical variations on the failure mechanisms of perforated steel plate shear Walls—a parametric study towards a new design

As an effective lateral resisting system, a steel plate shear wall (SPSW) should provide adequate ductility and dissipate energy while protecting its boundary elements (BEs). Herein, the failure modes of a recently-introduced design for SPSWs (a perforated panel with a web-reduced beam section) was investigated. The aim was to control the failure mechanism of this arrangement by various geometrical modifications. To obtain a high-performing design, the interaction of the structural components was studied in terms of plastic strain distribution, ductility, strength, and stiffness. To this end, a finite element prototype was populated for a range of geometrical parameters. The analyses were carried out by varying the panel and beam perforation sizes; then, one excelling combination was further challenged by altering its panel thickness and the frame aspect ratio. The model successfully distinguished between three common failure modes and provided an interesting insight into the causality of the failure mechanisms. It was found that the size of the perforations in the panel and the beam, and the size of the horizontal boundary elements could be manipulated to obtain the desired mechanism. Therein, the tensile failure of the panel was dominant where a plastic band formed across the panel and protected the vertical BEs and their connections. Moreover, the model outperformed its imperforate counterpart in terms of hysteresis ductility and absorbed energy (by about 250%) due to the increased engagement of the structural members. Finally, the findings were summarised into some practical recommendations for improving the design of the proposed arrangement.

New form of perforated steel plate shear wall in simple frames using topology optimization

This study presents a practical application of topology optimization (TO) technique to seek the best form of perforated steel plate shear walls (PSPSW) in simple frames. For the numerical investigation, a finite element model is proposed based on the recent particular form of PSPSW that is called the ring-shaped steel plate shear wall. The TO is applied based on the sensitivity analysis to maximize the reaction forces as the objective function considering the fracture tendency. For this purpose, TO is conducted under a monotonic and cyclic loading considering the nonlinear behavior (material and geometry) and buckling. Also, the effect of plate thickness is studied on the TO results. The final material volume of the optimized plate is limited to the material volume of the ring-shaped plate. Finally, an optimized plate is introduced and its nonlinear behavior is investigated under a cyclic and monotonic loading. For a more comprehensive view, the results are compared to the ring-shaped and four usual forms of SPSWs. The material volume of the plate for all the models is the same. The results indicate the strength, load-carrying, and energy dissipation in the optimized plate are increased while the fracture tendency is reduced without changing the material volume.

Study on Topology Optimization of Perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls in Moment Frame Based on Strain Energy

Perforated steel plate shear walls (PSPSWs) are requested for passing the equipment and creating the accessing spaces. Also, the studies showed the PSPSWs enhance the ductility. In this paper, topology optimization (TO) is used to introduce a new form of the PSPSW in the moment frames based on the strain energy as the objective function. The TO is conducted using the sensitivity analysis, SIMP method and method of moving asymptotes. Four amounts of aspect ratio (0.67, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0) and three plate thicknesses (2 mm, 4 mm and 8 mm) are defined in the TO and their effects are considered in the results. For a comprehensive study, the results of TO are compared with the three usual forms of PSPSW with circular holes and a previous optimized model. The material volume is equal for the plates with the identical aspect ratio and plate thickness. The cyclic behavior of all the models is investigated and compared in terms of strength, energy dissipation and fracture tendency. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is applied to score and determine the best model and form. The AHP method illustrated that the optimized models have a better performance. The results of the AHP method show that the optimized model in this study obtained 22.07% of the score from 100%, while the scores of the prior optimized model and three traditional models are 20.67%, 19.36%, 19.06% and 18.84%, respectively.

Ductility and energy dissipation of perforated steel plate shear walls

Steel plate shear wall (SPSW) that consists of boundary elements and steel plate, has been used as a structural system to resist lateral loads such as strong wind and earthquake. The capability of SPSW to resist a relatively strong earthquake has been tested in an actual earthquake when a 35-story high rise building that employed SPSW stood still during 1995 Kobe earthquake while a nearby building collapsed during the catastrophe. The need for serviceability such as piping, duct for air conditioning, heating and ventilation as well as passageway requires SPSW to be perforated. Despite the expanding research on SPSW, there is a scarcity in the research on the effect of perforations on the performance of the SPSW. The objective of this research is to determine how openings of different sizes and orientations influence energy dissipation, shear load capacity, and ductility ratio of SPSW. Earthquake resistant building must have adequate energy dissipation capacity and ductility. Analysis was carried out on six SPSW models where three of them were denoted as Model A series. These models differ in the area of the openings. The rest of the models were denoted as Model B series which have the exact area of perforation, but different orientation. In both series, ASTM A36 steel was used for the plate and ASTM A992 steel was used for the boundary elements. The results were obtained with the aid of ABAQUS software application. Lateral loads were allowed in a cyclic orientation applied to a single side of the structure following the protocols of ATC 24. It is concluded that certain sizes of openings enhance the energy dissipation and ductility ratio. Model B3 which has the smallest dimension of the opening perpendicular to the load has the largest energy dissipation and shear load capacity but, has the smallest ductility.

Experimental and Numerical Study of Perforated Steel Plate Shear Panels

Thin perforated Steel Plate Shear (SPS) Walls are among the most common types of energy dissipating systems. The applied holes reduce the shear strength of the plate and allow to decrease the profile size of the members at the boundary of the panel when these systems are used in the typical design of structures. On the other hand, the different fracture locations of these panels are visible when considering the different perforation patterns. This paper reports on the results obtained from the experimental study under cyclic loading of the effect of different hole patterns on the seismic response of the systems and the location of the fracture. According to this, two perforated specimens by different patterns were considered. In addition, a plate without holes for a better comparison of the fracture location was chosen. The results showed that changing the pattern of the holes causes a change in the fracture location. Moreover, in perforated specimens, the amount of shear strength did not reduce suddenly after the fracture phenomenon. In the specimen which was perforated around the web plate, the pinching force was more than any other in the low cycle of the drifts. For this reason, the energy dissipation and initial stiffness were more than up to 3% drift. The experimental specimens were then simulated with a Finite Element (FE) method using the ABAQUS. Finally, a parametric FE analysis on different series of perforated panels, by changing the diameter of the holes and the plate thickness, has been carried out.

Shaking Table Test on a Perforated Buckling-Restrained Steel Plate Shear Wall Structure

ABSTRACT In order to avoid local buckling at the edge of infill plates, perforations were introduced in the buckling-restrained steel plate shear wall (BRW) in this paper. And a shaking table test on a 1/4 scaled, four-storey, perforated BRW structure was performed to investigate seismic behavior of BRW structures. During the test, no failure at the edge of the infill plate was observed. The test structure remained essentially intact till the end of the 1.2 g excitations and the residual deformation of the test structure was negligible. In addition, the fundamental frequency of the test structure decreased only 2% after 1.2 g excitations, indicating that there is no need to repair this perforated BRWs structure. The input energy from earthquake was mainly dissipated in first two storeys, in spite of the maximum drifts of each floors differed little from others, as the interstorey drift of the upper storeys were dominated by the overturning effect of the lower storeys. A finite-element (FE) model of the test structure (donated as BR model) was developed using the shell element provided by ABAQUS/Standard, and numerical values agreed well with the test results. Finally, the seismic behaviors of the BR model and a perforated steel plate shear wall structure model (donated as SP model) were compared to show the discrepancies of those two on overall responses, shear force participating ratios of the infill plate, the stress distribution of the infill plate and the additional influences on boundary columns.

Perforated steel plate shear walls with curved corrugated webs under cyclic loading

Steel Plate Shear Walls (SPSWs) are traditionally designed with vertical infill plates, which are connected to the surrounding frame and can be stiffened or unstiffened. Recently, the application of plates with different geometrical shapes and perforations has attracted the attention in the literature with the aim of understanding the behavior of high-performing SPSW systems. However, detailed and systematic investigations are still required to fully understand the behavior of such relatively new lateral-force-resisting systems, further complicated by the introduction of perforations. This paper addresses this issue, with the structural performance of curve-corrugated SPSWs with centrally-placed opening being the subject of investigation. The research described herein describes 128 nonlinear finite element models of SPSWs, analyzed under cyclic and monotonic loading. The effects associated with web corrugation angle, thickness, and opening size on the buckling, yielding, strength, and stiffness performances, hysteresis behavior, and energy dissipation characteristics of SPSWs are investigated. It is shown that consideration of 90° corrugation angle and larger web-plate thicknesses can be beneficial. However, having a panel perforation layout as a web plate and increasing the perforation size can adversely affect the performance of such systems. Overall, curved-corrugated SPSWs with web perforations are found to be a good structural system, and a desirable performance can be ensured through proper design variables and detailing each component of the system.

Nonlinear seismic performance of code designed perforated steel plate shear walls

Nonlinear seismic performances of code designed Perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls (P-SPSW) were studied. Three multi-storey (4-, 8-, and 12-storey) P-SPSWs were designed according to Canadian seismic provisions and their performance was evaluated using time history analysis for ground motions compatible with Vancouver response spectrum. The selected code designed P-SPSWs exhibited excellent seismic performance with high ductility and strength. The current code equation was found to provide a good estimation of the shear strength of the perforated infill plate, especially when the infill plate is yielded. The applicability of the strip model, originally proposed for solid infill plate, was also evaluated for P-SPSW and two different strip models were studied. It was observed that the strip model with strip widths equal to center to center diagonal distance between each perforation line could reasonably predict the inelastic behavior of unstiffened P-SPSWs. The strip model slightly underestimated the initial stiffness; however, the ultimate strength was predicted well. Furthermore, applicability of simple shear-flexure beam model for determination of fundamental periods of P-SPSWs was studied.

Ductility and Behaviour Factor of RC Frame - Perforated SPSW Dual Systems

In this paper the non-linear behaviour of dual seismic-resistant structures made of Reinforced Concrete Frames (RCF) and perforated Steel Plate Shear Walls (SPSWs) has been investigated. The starting point has been the numerical calibration by ABAQUS of an experimental test taken from literature on one-third scale three-storey RCF with infill SPSWs subjected to monotonically increasing horizontal loading. Based on results of the implemented FEM model, three types of perforated SPSWs with different percentages and position of holes have been numerically analysed through static non-linear analyses. On the basis of numerical results achieved, by comparing each other the values of shear strength, behaviour factor and ductility of the tested specimens, it has been observed a significant improvement of the ductile behaviour of the RCF equipped with perforated SPSWs with respect to the one obtained for the RCF provided with traditional solid SPSWs. In addition, the dual systems given by RCF and perforated SPSWs have provided a shear strength reduction of 26%, 46% and 51% in comparison to that of the original RCF - solid SPSW composite system, when holes percentage equal to 13%, 40% and 42% have been considered, respectively. Finally, it has been noticed that behaviour factors of perforated specimens have been increased with increasing adjoining distance among holes.

Topology optimization of steel plate shear walls in the moment frames

In this paper, topology optimization (TO) is applied to find a new configuration for the perforated steel plate shear wall (PSPSW) based on the maximization of reaction forces as the objective function. An infill steel plate is introduced based on an experimental model for TO. The TO is conducted using the sensitivity analysis, the method of moving asymptotes and SIMP method. TO is done using a nonlinear analysis (geometry and material) considering the buckling. The final area of the optimized plate is equal to 50% of the infill plate. Three plate thicknesses and three length-to-height ratios are defined and their effects are investigated in the TO. It indicates the plate thickness has no significant impact on the optimization results. The nonlinear behavior of optimized plates under cyclic loading is studied and the strength, energy and fracture tendency of them are investigated. Also, four steel plates including infill plate, a plate with a central circle and two types of the multi-circle plate are introduced with equal plate volume for comparing with the results of the optimized plate.

Hysteretic behavior of perforated steel plate shear walls with beam-only connected infill plates

The steel plate shear wall with beam-only connected infill plate (SSW-BO) is an innovative lateral load resisting system consisting of infill plates connected to surrounding beams and separated from the main columns. In this research, the effects of perforation diameter as well as slenderness ratios of infill plates on the hysteresis behavior of SSW-BO systems were studied experimentally. Experimental testing is performed on eight one-sixth scaled one-story SSW-BO specimens with two plate thicknesses and four different circular opening ratios at the center of the panels under fully reversed cyclic quasi-static loading in compliance with the SAC test protocol. Strength, stiffness, ductility and energy absorption were evaluated based on the hysteresis loops. It is found that the systems exhibited stable hysteretic behavior during testing until significant damage in the connection of infill plates to surrounding beams at large drifts. It is also seen that pinching occurred in the hysteresis loops, since the hinge type connections were used as boundaries at four corners of surrounding frames. The strength and initial stiffness degradation of the perforated specimens containing opening ratio of 0.36 compared to the solid one is in the range of 20% to 30% and 40% to 50%, respectively.