Perfluoroalkyl Substances In Water Research Articles

Development and validation of a novel HPLC-MS/MS method for the quantitative determination of PFASs in non-hazardous solid waste samples

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a heterogeneous group of fluorinated synthetic compounds characterised by the presence of a hydrophobic carbonyl chain at different fluorination rates and by a terminal hydrophilic group. Because of their persistence and mobility, PFASs have been widely detected in ecosystems and living organisms, leading to their classification as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Hence, monitoring the PFASs content in solid waste meant for disposal in non-hazardous landfills can be crucial, since leachate can pose a significant pollution threat to farmlands and aquifers.Therefore, a QuEChERS and SPE pretreatment with HPLC-MS/MS detection method for 10 different PFASs in solid waste samples was developed in this study. Different sample preparation approaches have been evaluated, taking into account the lack in the literature of this complex matrix.An innovative application using the Captiva EMR cartridge for the clean up (designed to be applied to lipidic matrix) was proposed and a multiresidual HPLC-MS/MS method for the analysis of PFASs in internal waters was extended to the investigation of non-lipidic samples as solid wastes. The method was then validated through 6 blanks and 6 spiked samples, according to the UNI EN ISO/IEC 17025. The optimized method showed satisfactory performance with recoveries ranging from 89.8 % to 106.5 % and with LOD and LOQ ranging between 0.0023 – 0.09 µg/L and 0.006 – 0.13 µg/L, respectively, for each of the PFASs under consideration. In addition, this approach demonstrated to be reliable and time consuming due to its capability for determining PFASs in waters and in solid wastes simultaneously in a single chromatographic run.

Activation of sawdust biochar with water and wastewater treatment residuals for sorption of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid in water

Recent research has found biochar to be a cost-effective adsorbent for removal of perfluoroalkyl substances in water. To promote cleaner production and sustainable waste management, this study explored the potential to produce activated biochars by co-pyrolyzing sawdust with iron-rich biosolids and polyaluminum sludge. The maximum capacity to adsorb perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) reached 27.2 mg g−1 with biosolids-activated biochar and 19.2 mg g−1 with aluminum sludge-activated biochar, compared to 6.2 mg g−1 with sawdust biochar. The increased adsorption capacities were attributed to electrostatic interactions between the anionic PFOS and metal functionalities on the biochar surface. In contrast, hydrophobic interaction was the dominant adsorption mechanism of sawdust biochar. The presence of dissolved organic matter at 5–50 mg L−1 was found to inhibit adsorption of PFOS in water, while pH as low as 3.0 and sodium chloride concentrations up to 100 mM enhanced removal of PFOS by all the three adsorbents. In batch adsorption tests at environmentally relevant PFOS dosages and adsorbent dosage of 0.25 g L−1, the biosolids-sawdust biochar and Al sludge-sawdust biochar removed 71.4% and 66.9% of PFOS from drinking water and 77.9% and 87.9% of PFOS from filtrate of sludge digestate, respectively. The biosolids-sawdust biochar additionally removed Fe, although the Al sludge-sawdust biochar released Al into the alkaline drinking water and filtrate. Overall, this study proved co-pyrolyzing sawdust and Fe-rich biosolids to be an effective approach to activate sawdust biochar for enhanced removal of PFOS while recycling wastewater treatment residuals and sawdust.

Perfluoroalkyl substances in the environment and biota from the coasts of the South China Sea: profiles, sources, and potential risks

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are an emerging class of contaminants that have been produced since the 1950s. The first report on PFAS to raise global concerns was published in 2001. Since then, many countries have implemented policies to control PFAS. In this study, PFAS in the water, sediment, and biota in coastal areas were surveyed to review their use since their earliest production by using chronological methods combined with previous policy restrictions imposed on PFAS. In the meantime, reports of existing PFAS were evaluated to assess the ecological and health risks of seafood consumption by coastal populations. Following the restrictions on PFAS, the concentrations of PFAS have been decreasing steadily. With regard to the current occurrences of PFAS in water and sediment, there is almost no ecological risk. However, different gender and age groups are still at risk of exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate and require constant monitoring. It is expected that the negative impacts of PFAS on the environment and human health will continue to decrease with the implementation of the emerging pollution control policy by the Chinese government in 2023.

Poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances in water: Occurrence, analytical methodologies, and remediations strategies: A comprehensive review

Abstract Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are fluoro-organic compounds comprising thousands of anthropogenically produced chemicals with various industrial and consumer applications. This review compiles recent information on the sources, occurrence, and health effects of PFAS in aquatic environments. Secondly, as a primary requirement for assessing the PFAS concentration in water, this review systematically summarised the analytical methodologies (sample preparation and analytical detection techniques) for PFAS. Furthermore, health risks associated with PFAS in water are outlined. Finally, researchers worldwide have investigated the strategies for the remediation and elimination of PFAS from water. Previous studies have shown that PFASs are present in various water bodies with the highest concentration detected in Germany (94–4,385 ng·L−1 in river and drinking waters). The findings of this review further revealed that solid-phase extraction techniques were the most preferred for sample preparation compared to liquid–liquid extraction techniques. Solid-phase extraction technique improved the limit of detection and the limit of quantification of many analytical techniques to 0.010–1.15 and 0.030–4.00 ng·L−1, respectively. For PFAS remediation, the adsorption method and chemical oxidation using heat-activated persulfate and photochemical oxidation were the most used techniques. The most studied water matrices were drinking, river, groundwater, wastewater, and modelled ultra-pure water. The most used detection technique was found to be liquid chromatograph-tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS).

Distribution and potential health risks of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in water, sediment, and fish in Dongjiang River Basin, Southern China.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have attracted worldwide attention due to their high stability, refractory degradation, and bioaccumulation. The Dongjiang River is one of the most important water sources in the Pearl River Delta region. It flows from Jiangxi Province to Guangdong Province and finally into the Pearl River, providing domestic water for cities such as Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Hong Kong. In this study, 17 PFASs in water, sediment, and fish in the Dongjiang River Basin in southern China were investigated using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Total PFAS concentrations ranged from 20.83 to 372.8 ng/L in water, from 1.050 to 3.050 ng/g in sediments, and from 12.28 to 117.4 ng/g in fish. Among six species of fish, Oreochromis mossambicus (mean: 68.55 ng/g) had the highest concentration of PFASs, while Tilapia zillii (36.90 ng/g) had the lowest concentration. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) predominates in water and sediments, while perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) predominates in fish. Long-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) and perfluorosulfonates (PFSAs) showed higher bioaccumulation, and the field-sourced sediment-water partition coefficients (Kd) and bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of PFASs increased with the length of perfluorocarbon chains. PFAS concentration in the lower reaches (urban area) of the Dongjiang River is higher than that in the upper and middle reaches (rural area). The calculated hazard ratio (HR) of PFOS and PFOA levels in fish in the Dongjiang River Basin was far less than 1; hence, the potential risk to human health was limited.

Emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in water and sediment from Qiantang River-Hangzhou Bay

Many emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are being used in China, due to the gradual phase out of legacy PFASs. Occurrence and environmental behaviors of emerging PFASs in Chinese fresh water environment are still not well known. In this study, 31 PFASs, including 14 emerging PFASs, were measured in 29 pairs of water and sediment samples from Qiantang River-Hangzhou Bay, an important drinking water resource for cities in Yangtze River basin. Perfluorooctanoate was consistently the predominant legacy PFAS in water (8.8–130 ng/L) and sediment (3.7–49 ng/g dw). Twelve emerging PFASs were detected in water, with the dominance of 6:2 chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonates (6:2 Cl-PFAES; mean 11 ng/L, 0.79–57 ng/L) and 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS; 5.6 ng/L, < LOD–29 ng/L). Eleven emerging PFASs were found in sediment, and were also dominated by 6:2 Cl-PFAES (mean 4.3 ng/g dw, 0.19–16 ng/g dw) and 6:2 FTS (2.6 ng/g dw, < LOD–9.4 ng/g dw). Spatially, sampling sites closed to the surrounding cities had comparatively higher water concentrations of PFASs. Among emerging PFASs, 8:2 Cl-PFAES (3.0 ± 0.34) had the highest mean field-based log-transformed organic‑carbon normalized sediment-water partition coefficient (log Koc), followed by 6:2 Cl-PFAES (2.9 ± 0.35) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (2.8 ± 0.32). p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate (2.3 ± 0.60) and 6:2 FTS (1.9 ± 0.54) had relatively lower mean log Koc values. To our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive study investigating the occurrence and partitioning behaviors of emerging PFASs in Qiantang River.

Separation of perfluoroalkyl substances by ion chromatography with a resorcinarene stationary phase

AbstractPerfluoroalkyl substances pose a worldwide environmental health risk. It is important to develop new detection and quantification methods for perfluoroalkyl substances. Currently, liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry is the proposed method to analyze perfluoroalkyl substances. Ion chromatography, with its ability to use water samples as they are collected, could be a promising technique to detect anionic perfluoroalkyl substances in water. A new cationic stationary phase, composed of a resorcinarene bound to arginine, was synthesized and used to separate perfluoroalkyl substances by ion chromatography. The new packing material under the right gradient conditions separates perfluoroalkyl substances such as perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluorobutanesulfonic acid, perfluoropentanoic acid, perfluorohexanoic acid, perfluorohexanesulfonic acid, and perfluorooctanoic acid. Unlike the case with common anions, it was found that decreasing the NaOH concentration in the eluent resulted in better perfluoroalkyl substances separation. The detection limits of the perfluoroalkyl substances were from 0.44 to 4.0 mg/L and the limits of quantification were from 1.5 to 13 mg/L. The retention times of the perfluoroalkyl substances were dependent on the number of CF2 groups and whether their acid group was sulfonate or carboxylate. Also, the detection of perfluoroalkyl substances in tap and lake water was accomplished.

Rapid and Simultaneous Quantification of Short- and Ultrashort-Chain Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Water and Wastewater

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of chemicals of growing concern. Recently, there has been a shift toward the use of short- and ultrashort-chain PFASs, which are difficult to measure with current analytical methods and rarely included in environment monitoring studies. In this research, we developed and optimized online solid-phase extraction, high-performance liquid chromatography, and electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry methods for the rapid and simultaneous quantification of 10 short- and ultrashort-chain PFASs. We applied our method to water samples collected from a variety of natural, engineered, industrial, and commercial water systems. We detected ultrashort-chain PFASs in every sample, including hydraulic fracturing water and wastewater samples and wastewater from electronic fabrication facilities for the first time, identifying previously unknown sources of ultrashort-chain PFASs. We also measured ultrashort-chain PFASs in a variety of drinking water sources, including what was thought to be pristine groundwater and surface water sources. The measurement of ultrashort-chain PFASs in every sample type studied here raises concern over the potential ubiquity of these compounds in the environment and highlights the need for further monitoring studies, especially as longer-chain PFASs become regulated, and the industrial shift to short- and ultrashort-chain PFASs increases.

The occurrence of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in drinking water in the Czech Republic: a pilot study.

Drinking water is one of the main contributors to overall human exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a broad group of environmental contaminants with arising concerns on the impact on human health; therefore, it is necessary to monitor its quality. Here, we present a solid-phase extraction-based method to determine 22 PFAS in water, using 100mL of the sample. The instrumental analysis employing an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry achieved low limits of quantification (0.025-0.25ng/L). The validated method (recoveries 70-120% and repeatabilities ≤ 20% at tested concentrations (0.05, 0.1 and 0.5ng/L)) was applied to 67 tap water and 31 bottled water samples collected in the Czech Republic. The most abundant compounds were perfluorononanoic acid (88% positives; 0.034-13.3ng/L) and perfluoroheptanoic acid (23% positives; 0.035-0.106ng/L), respectively. ∑PFAS in positive samples ranged from 0.029 to 300ng/L (99% positives, median 2.34ng/L) in tap water data and 0.033 to 4.48ng/L (32% positives, median 0.097ng/L) in bottled water samples. Current-use fluoroalkyl ethers, dodecafluoro-3H-4,8-dioxanonanoate and 11-chloroeicosafluoro-3-oxaundecane-1-sulfonate, were occasionally detected in tap. Based on the median data, PFAS intake by an adult from a tap or bottled water represented units of % of the tolerable weekly intake set by the European Food Safety Authority and therefore did not represent a severe risk. The described method and obtained first data on PFAS in the Czech drinking water provided a solid basis for an ongoing national study on the presence of PFAS in tap water.

Photocatalytic degradation of perfluoroalkyl substances in water by using a duo-functional tri-metallic-oxide hybrid catalyst

The recalcitrant nature of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) urges scientists to discover solutions to permanently remove PFAS contaminations from water with less energy in contrast to incineration. Herein, a duo-functional tri-metallic-oxide (f-TMO) hybrid photocatalyst was developed via a facile process, which displayed both high adsorption capacity and high defluorination rate of a series of PFASs including PFOA, PFOS, PFHpA, PFHxA and PFBA due to the generated holes/electrons (h+/e−) and multi-radicals such as O2•- and SO4•-. Particularly the Langmuir adsorption capacities up to 827.84 and 714.46 mg g−1 along with the adsorption efficiency of 99.8% and 99.4% for PFOS and PFOA were respectively achieved. A defluorination ratio of as high as 74.8% with PFOA and a ratio up to 67.6% with PFOS were respectively received. Over 98% PFOA molecules were degraded within as fast as 15 min under initial concentrations ranging from 1 ppb to 1000 ppb, which demonstrates an excellent degradation kinetics. As for the sulfonic acid of PFOS, an as high as 95.5% degradation efficiency was obtained within 300 min. The degradation rates were 4.5 mg L−1 h−1 for PFOA and 0.54 mg L−1 h−1 for PFOS, respectively. In parallel, the f-TMO photocatalyst still exhibited a >96.2% degradation efficiency after eight regeneration cycles. The high physical adsorption capacity and high defluorination rate make this f-TMO catalyst promising applications in removing various PFASs from a broad range of residential and industrial water systems.

Perfluoroalkyl substances in water, sediment, and fish from a subtropical river of China: Environmental behaviors and potential risk

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water, sediment and fish were analyzed from a subtropical river, Jiulong River in the southeast of China, to character the sources, seasonal variations, bioconcentration and potential risk. PFAS in water, sediment, muscle and liver tissues of fish ranged from 2.5 to 410 ng L−1, 0.24–1.9 ng g−1 dw, 25–100 and 35–1100 ng g−1 ww, respectively. Generally, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) was the dominant compound in water, while, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were the dominant compounds in sediment and fish tissues. High concentrations of PFAS in water were found near the machinery manufacturing and paper packaging plants in the north branch of Jiulong River. PFAS during the dry season were significantly (P < 0.01) higher than that during the normal season and wet season. The Kd of PFAS increased with the carbon chain length, and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) exhibited higher Kd values than perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), indicating these long chain PFAS tended to be adsorbed by sediment. Long chain PFAS exhibited high bioconcentration factors (BCFs), while short and medium carbon chain PFAS had weak bioconcentration capacity. The hazard ratios (HR) suggested that frequent consumption of river fish may pose health risks to local population.

Screening and Discrimination of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Aqueous Solution Using a Luminescent Metal-Organic Framework Sensor Array.

The extensive production and large-scale use of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have raised their presence in aquatic environments worldwide. Thus, the facile and reliable screening of PFASs in aqueous systems is of great significance. Herein, we designed a novel fluorescent sensor array for the rapid screening and discrimination of multiple PFASs in water. The sensor array comprised three highly stable zirconium porphyrinic luminescent metal-organic frameworks (i.e., PCNs) with different topological structures. The sensing mechanism was based on the static fluorescence quenching of PCNs by PFASs upon their adsorptive interactions. The fluorescence response patterns were characteristic for each PFAS because of their different adsorption affinities toward different PCNs. Through the interpretation of response patterns by statistical methods, the proposed PCN array successfully discriminated six different kinds of PFASs, each PFAS at different concentrations and PFAS mixtures at different molar ratios. The practicability of this array was further verified by effectively discriminating PFASs in two real water samples. Remarkably, the PCN sensors exhibited a very short response time toward PFASs (within 10 s) due to the ordered pore structure allowing fast PFAS diffusion. This study not only provides a facile method for rapid PFAS screening in waters but also broadens the application of luminescent metal-organic frameworks and array techniques in sensing fields.

Occurrence of legacy and emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in water: A case study in Tianjin (China)

Due to the water solubility and environmentally persistent properties of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), the contamination of PFAS in drinking water is raising widespread concerns for their potential adverse health risks. In the present study, the behavior of PFAS from source waters to effluent water was analyzed by taking samples from three drinking water sources (Yuqiao Reservoir, Beidagang Reservoir, and Yangtze River) and effluent of several treatment processes used in one drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) of Tianjin (China), including pre-chlorination, coagulation, sand filtration, and chlorination. The range of total concentration of PFAS (∑21PFAS) in three source water was 6.64–19.80 ng/L (Yuqiao Reservoir), 80.00–119.86 ng/L (Beidagang Reservoir), and 15.87 ng/L (Yangtze River), respectively. As for individual PFAS, PFBA (perfluorobutanoic acid) was the most abundant PFAS, followed by PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), PFBS (perfluorobutane sulfonate), and PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate), especially, 6:2 Cl-PFESA (6:2 Cl-polyflurinated ether sulfonate) was detected in all samples. During treatment, the removal rate of ∑21PFAS was 11%, and the removal rate of long-chain PFAS such as PFNA (perfluorononanoic acid), PFOS, and PFDS (perfluorodecane sulfonate) were relatively higher than short-chain PFAS due to their hydrophobic characteristic. Besides, the influence of seasonal factor (precipitation) on the occurrence and composition characteristics of PFAS in the aquatic environment was also investigated, and the results demonstrated that precipitation affected the total concentrations of PFAS in the aquatic environment, but barely on the composition characteristics of PFAS. Furthermore, the ecological risks could be negligible based on the concentration of PFAS measured in surface water. In the meanwhile, the health risks were also assessed based on the concentration of PFAS detected in drinking water, the result indicated that the concentrations of PFAS were less than the suggested drinking water advisories. In addition, more attention should be paid to the risk caused by the frequently detected emerging PFAS such as 6:2 Cl-PFESA and HFPO-DA (hexafluoropropylene oxide-dimer acid).

Distribution of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in water, sediment, and fish tissue, and the potential human health risks due to fish consumption in Lake Hawassa, Ethiopia

Due to their global distribution, persistence, bioaccumulative potential and toxicity, perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are considered as hazardous chemicals. Although many studies on PFASs pollution in aquatic environments have been done in the Northern hemisphere, less is known on PFASs pollution in African aquatic ecosystems and the risks they pose to humans through consumption of contaminated biota. The objective of this study was to determine the spatial distribution of PFASs in water, sediment, and fish tissue in Lake Hawassa, Ethiopia, and to investigate possible human health risks due to fish consumption. Among the PFASs detected in water and sediment, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was the most abundant with mean concentrations of 6.93 ng/L and 0.23 ng/g dw respectively. Long-chained PFASs dominated the PFAS accumulation profiles in fish tissues, with higher concentrations measured in liver compared to muscle tissue. The detected concentrations of PFASs were, however, often similar to those reported in other African aquatic ecosystems. This study showed no potential health risk due to consumption of contaminated fish based on mean concentrations and fish consumption. However, it is expected that peoples who consume more fish (fishermen and local peoples living close to Lake Hawassa) may suffer health risks due to PFASs contamination.

Plant uptake of perfluoroalkyl substances in freshwater environments (Dongzhulong and Xiaoqing Rivers, China)

This study provides new knowledge on the mobility, behavior, and partitioning of 17 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the water-sediment-plant system along the Dongzhulong and Xiaoqing Rivers. The fate of PFASs in these rivers is also discussed. The study area is affected by the industrial production of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). The ∑PFASs in water and sediments close to the industrial discharge were 84,000 ± 2000 ng/L and 2300 ± 200 ng/g dw, respectively, with the concentrations decreasing along the river due to dilution. PFOA was the dominant compound (74–97% of the ∑PFASs), although other PFASs were identified close to urban areas. Principal component analysis and solid-liquid distribution coefficients revealed that long-chain PFASs accumulated in the sediment whereas short-chain PFASs remained in the water all along the river. PFASs were taken up by plants and remobilized to different plant compartments according to shoot concentration factors (SCFs), root concentration factors (RCF), and transfer factors (TFs). Among the four plant species studied, floating plants absorbed high levels of PFASs, while rooted species translocated short-chain PFASs from the roots to the shoots. Therefore, floating species, due to their high uptake capacity and large proliferation rate, could eventually be used for phytoremediation.

Occurrence and ecotoxicological risk assessment of perfluoroalkyl substances in water of lakes along the middle reach of Yangtze River, China

Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are widely distributed in aquatic environment, and the potential ecological risk of PFASs has become a new challenge in recent years. But there were few integrated studies about the distribution, source appointment and risk assessment of PFASs in water of lakes along the middle reach of Yangtze River, China. Hence, this study investigated the pollution characteristics, source apportionment, ecological risks assessment of eleven PFASs from the surface water in this region. The total concentrations of PFASs (∑PFASs) ranged from 12.43 to 77.44 ng L−1 in this region. The ∑PFASs in Hong and Poyang Lakes were higher than those in Dongting Lake and middle reach of Yangtze River (p < 0.05). The compositions of PFASs in the middle reach of Yangtze River and along three lakes were similar, being with a larger proportion of short-chain PFACs. The food packaging and metal plating sources were identified as the main sources by two models. The total risk quotients (∑RQs) showed the ecological risk for algae in the middle reach of Yangtze River, Dongting and Poyang Lakes were negligible, but the low risk in some sites of Hong Lake. The EDIs of ∑PFASs were much lower than the tolerable daily intake recommended by the European Food Safety Authority. The results of this study were significant for developing effective strategies (e.g. short-chain substitution and restriction) of controlling PFASs pollution in the middle reach of Yangtze River and along lakes.

Energy Evaluation of Electron Beam Treatment of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Water: A Critical Review

Due to their recalcitrant nature and ubiquitous use, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) will continue to be major water treatment hurdles. Although effective water treatment technologies exist for physical removal of many PFAS from water (e.g., activated carbon and ion-exchange resin), a PFAS-concentrated waste stream is generated as an end product that can potentially reintroduce PFAS back into the environment. Thus, there is an increased interest in developing destructive technologies to decompose and mineralize PFAS directly in water or in these waste streams. High energy electron beam (e-beam) accelerators have been used for water treatment to degrade a wide range of recalcitrant contaminants, including PFAS, since the 1960s. However, large-scale applications of e-beam for water treatment are restricted due to its high energy consumption and inability to treat large flow rates. Considering there are very few available technologies for destructive removal of PFAS, this study provides a critical review on the treatment of PFAS by direct irradiation of contaminated water by e-beam from an energy consumption point of view. To date, very limited studies have been conducted to investigate the success of this technology to treat PFAS. Results from the limited studies were not directly comparable due to the variation in operating conditions and water quality parameters used in the studies. Here, for the first time, we develop and apply the concept of electrical energy per order (EE/O) to assess the performance of e-beam for PFAS treatment. Results show that EE/O is a better performance parameter than the G value of e-beam for interstudy comparisons and to evaluate the effects of water quality and operating parameters on e-beam performance. We additionally developed a kinetic scheme to predict the performance of e-beam to treat PFAS and revealed that the competition between species to react with aqueous electrons is the determinant factor influencing PFAS degradation efficiency. Comparison of EE/O values of e-beam (range: 31–176 kWh m–3 order –1) with other destructive technologies (range: 5–9595 kWh m–3 order –1) suggest that e-beam, for PFAS treatment, is a promising approach under favorable conditions. This review further elucidates the feasibility and limitations of e-beam technology that could be improved upon to potentially make e-beam viable for large-scale water treatment applications.

Facing the Challenge of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Water: Is Electrochemical Oxidation the Answer?

Electrochemical treatment systems have the unique ability to completely mineralize poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) through potential-driven electron transfer reactions. In this review, we discuss the state-of-the-art on electrooxidation of PFASs in water, aiming at elucidating the impact of different operational and design parameters, as well as reported mechanisms of PFAS degradation at the anode surface. We have identified several shortcomings of the existing studies that are largely limited to small-scale laboratory batch systems and unrealistic synthetic solutions, which makes extrapolation of the obtained data to real-world applications difficult. PFASs are surfactant molecules, which display significant concentration-dependence on adsorption, electrosorption, and dissociation. Electrooxidation experiments conducted with high initial PFAS concentration and/or in high conductivity supporting electrolytes likely overestimate process performance. In addition, the formation of organohalogen byproducts, chlorate and perchlorate, was seldom considered. Nevertheless, the first step toward advancing from laboratory-scale to industrial-scale applications is recognizing both the strengths and limitations of electrochemical water treatment systems. More comprehensive and rigorous evaluation of novel electrode materials, application of scalable proof-of-concept studies, and acknowledgment of all treatment outputs (not just the positive ones) are imperative. The presence of PFASs in drinking water and in the environment is an urgent global public health issue. Developments made in material science and application of novel three-dimensional, porous electrode materials and nanostructured coatings are forging a path toward more sustainable water treatment technologies and potential chemical-free treatment of PFAS-contaminated water.

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in special management sea areas of Korea: Distribution and bioconcentration in edible fish species

Thirteen PFASs in water (n = 58), sediment (n = 58) and edible fish samples (n = 81) collected from three special management sea areas of Korea including Gwangyang bay, Masan bay and Busan harbor in July 2018 were investigated. The mean PFASs concentration in water (ng/L) were in order Masan (5.09) > Busan (2.82) > Gwangyang (1.74). PFASs levels were found as the low concentration in sediment. The greatest total PFASs concentration in each fish tissue was found as 3.04 (ng/g ww) in a Japanese amberjack fish for muscle in Busan, 66.23 (ng/mL) in Japanese amberjack fish for blood in Masan and 125.03 (ng/g ww) flathead grey mullet in Busan bay. The BCF (L/kg) of PFDoDA was found as the highest in muscle of all species with values from 30,922 (grey mullet in Gwangyang) to 69,131 (grey mullet in Busan). PFDS was the highest BCF's PFASs (110,599 L/kg) in muscle which was found in Japanese amberjack in Busan bay.

Spatial Characteristics and Ecological Risks of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Coastal Urbanized Areas of China and South Korea

This study concentrated on the 15 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the coastal areas of China and South Korea, an urbanized area with intensive human activities. In total, 126 water samples and 125 sediment samples were collected and determined by HPLC-MS/MS. Fifteen PFASs were detected at least once in all the sites. The total concentrations of PFASs in water and sediment samples ranged from 6.75 ng·L-1 to 20982 ng·L-1 and from 0.229 ng·g-1 to 53.8 ng·g-1 (dw), respectively. The concentrations of PFASs in waters and sediments were relatively high in China, and PFOA was the predominant PFAS. In contrast, short chain compounds such as PFBA and PFPeA played a major role in water, and PFOS, PFBA, and PFOA dominated the sediment samples in South Korea. The partition coefficients of PFASs were closely related to the fraction of organic carbon in the sediment and the carbon chain length of PFASs. Among the 15 compounds, the partition coefficients of 9 were significantly correlated with the fraction of organic carbon (r>0.21, P<0.05), and the partition coefficient steadily increased with the increase of the carbon chain length. The results of ecological risk assessment suggested that the coastal urbanized areas of China and South Korea are still at a low risk. However, some specific areas also showed PFAS pollution. More attention should be paid to the potential health risks.