Perceptual-motor Skills Research Articles

Finding a Voice for Individuals With ASD Who Are Minimally Verbal Through Comprehensive Communication Assessment

Purpose Many, but not all, children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have a difficult time communicating in conventional ways to express their decisions, preferences, and ideas. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) can fulfill many purposes of communication and support a child to achieve maximal self-determination and agency. The goal of assessment is not to fit the child to a particular device or communication strategy—but rather to identify the strategies that enhance the child's strengths to maximize their independent communication and ultimately their ability to exert control over their world. Method Our method was to combine results from our scoping review of the research literature, observations of videos of AAC assessments being conducted by specialists, and interviews with AAC experts (Lund, Quach, Weissling, McKelvey, & Dietz, 2017) and use these combined sources to extract overlapping themes. Finally, we completed an expert review of the results to verify their validity. Results There are 11 areas, which we found through our research, that should be included when assessing the communication and language skills of children with ASD who are minimally verbal. They are communication needs, current communication skills, language, cognition, symbol representation, sensory perceptual skills, motor skills, literacy, behavior, preferences, and system features. Conclusions It is important to embrace agency and choice throughout the assessment process. Having access to communication through AAC can give children with ASD a voice not only to express their choices but also to increase their self-determination.

Physical, Perceptual, Socio-Relational, and Affective Skills of Five-Year-Old Children Born Preterm and Full-Term According to Their Body Mass Index.

The main purpose of this study was to compare the psychomotor development of five-year-old children born preterm and full term. The comparison included physical-motor, perceptual-motor, and socio-relational and affective skills. As low weight is one of the variables that most influences the psychomotor development of premature infants, a secondary aim was to analyze these skills according to their current body mass index (BMI). A prospective simple ex-post facto study was conducted. The sample consisted of 672 five-year-old children enrolled in the third year of early childhood education in the province of Albacete, Spain; 35 of them was born prematurely. Children were evaluated by their teachers using the Checklist of Psychomotor Activities (CPA). The results show that children born preterm had a lower development of their physical-motor skills. In the perceptual-motor field, premature children showed lower scores in the variables related to their body image and body schema, motor dissociation, and visual-motor coordination, as well as in socio-relational and affective aspects. However, the development in laterality, dynamic coordination, motor execution, tonic-postural control, and balance were not affected. These differences were not affected by the current weight, given that the analysis of the BMI indicated no differences in preterm children. This study demonstrated the need to establish protocols oriented to the prevention of the difficulties detected in children with psychomotor high-risk and the needs to reinforce the educational programs in this area to improve the integral development of children born preterm.

PERCEPTIVE-MOTOR SKILLS IN CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Perceptual-motor skills (PMS) are very important for the functioning of children in general, including children with developmental disabilities, and enable a person to, based on the stimulus through movement it acts on the space that is surrounded. This paper aims to review the research of enriched knowledge of PMS of children with disabilities, which emphasized the importance of performing activities of everyday life and the acquisition of academic skills. The papers collected a search of electronic databases using the keywords: PMS, children with disabilities, visual perception, gross and fine motor skills, visual-motor coordination, visual-motor integration. Criteria for the selection of papers have been published in full and in the last 10 years. A total of 12 works met the criteria. The results of the research review showed that children with disabilities have a limitation in PMS, and showed that PMS differ separately from the type and degree of difficulty, but differences also exist within the same category of children with disabilities. Implementation of education and rehabilitation programs improves PMS. The results showed that there is a correlation between PMS and activities of everyday life and a correlation between visual perceptions and the acquisition of reading skills. It is important to point out that PMS can be practiced and it is important to implement incentive programs for children with disabilities, but also children at risk for some difficulty, to prevent possible difficulties that children may have in performing daily life activities and in acquiring academic skills. The results of the presented research should be considered concerning the limitations of the presented research, but also to the limitations of this research. Keywords: visual-motor integration, fine and gross motor skills, developmental difficulties

DOES HEAD INJURY LEAD TO COGNITIVE DETERIORATION

Background: After any traumatic injury to brain, the brain doesn’t heal completely and that’s why some effects will be permanent leading to loss in cognitive function, behavior and emotions. The Aim is to study the cognitive functioning and evaluate the extent of cognitive loss in patients with Traumatic Brain injury. Methodology: A sample of 50 out-patients was taken from hospital. PGI BBD was used to assess the cognitive functioning. Results indicated that domains on memory showed severe dysfunction, intelligence was moderately impaired and perceptual motor skills were mildly impaired. Out of the total number patients, 26% has no neuropsychological disability, 40% had mild disability, 24% of the patients have moderate level of disability and only 10% had severe neuropsychological disability. There is no significant relationship between age, education, duration of illness with Neuropsychological disability. Conclusion: Patients with TBI have some extent of dysfunction in memory, Intelligence, perceptual motor skills causing mild neuropsychological disability in 40% of the TBI cases. There is no significant relationship between age, education, duration of illness and neuropsychological disability.

Evaluating fine perceptual-motor skills in children with mild intellectual disability

Over the years, several studies have indicated that delay in perceptual-motor development and impaired motor organization is strongly associated with the level of cognitive functioning and performance in children. The aim of the present research study was to assess the fine perceptual-motor skills of children with mild intellectual disability 7-9-years-old and the comparison of their performance with two groups of typically developing children with the same chronological and a corresponding mental age. Our research sample consisted of 129 children between the ages of four and nine years whilst the experimental group had a total of 43 children (7-9-years-old) with mild intellectual disability. As an assessment tool of fine perceptual-motor skills we used a battery of tasks constructed in accordance with other commonly used standardized tests that measure psychomotor abilities. Furthermore, several comparisons were carried out in order to investigate our experimental hypotheses. Overall, our results revealed that children with mild intellectual disability scored lower in the tasks compared to typically developing children of equal chronological age but significantly higher than the group of typically developing children of the same mental age (preschoolers). The results of the psychometric properties of our designed tasks (reliability, validity) verify the high-quality psychometric characteristics of the designed tool.

Influence of different focus of attention instructions on learning volleyball skills for young novices

The simultaneous improvement of both form and outcome of sport skills is a challenge for every instructor since these are competing goals, especially for novices, and in the early stages of learning the improvement of movement form is usually more important than outcome. However, when novices have both goals, outcome usually prevails over form. External over internal focus of attention has been proposed by many researchers as an effective method for the development and learning of movement form or outcome. In this study, 57 girls were randomly divided into 2 experimental groups (external and internal) and a control group. All groups performed a pre-test. The two experimental groups followed an intervention program for 12 training units (6 weeks X 2 times a week). A post-test and a transfer test followed two weeks later. Data were analysed by factorial ANOVA (3 groups X 3 measurements) with repeated measurements of the last factor, followed by a post-hoc Tukey test. Both experimental groups, but not the control group, improved their performance in both form and outcome from pre-test to post-test and transfer test. The external focus group scored better in both form and outcome than the internal focus group in the post and transfer tests. It seems that external focus drives a subconscious motor control that results in greater movement automaticity and improves both form and outcome of sport skills. It is concluded that the external focus method is appropriate to develop both form and outcome of perceptual-motor skills.

Perceptual Motor Skills in Children and Pupils with Mild Intellectual Disabilities

This literature review analyzes eight specialized papers which focus on issues of the perceptual motor skills of children and pupils with mild intellectual disabilities. Children and pupils with mild intellectual disabilities have deficits in perceptual motor skills. The deficits of adaptive and intellectual skills of these children and pupils may be greater (mainly because of their conceptual and abstract reasoning)­ than their relative deficits of perceptual motor skills. Stronger perceptual motor skills in children and pupils with mild intellectual disabilities may be the target of school intervention as a means of alleviating problems in adaptive functions.

Investigating driving instructors: The mediating roles of driving skills in the relationship between organizational safety strategies and driver behaviours

The aim of the present study is to investigate the mediating roles of driving skills in relationship between organizational safety strategies and driver behaviours among driving instructors. Driving skills consist of perceptual-motor skills and safety skills. Driver behaviours are investigated under four factors: violations, errors, lapses, and positive driver behaviours. Participants were 132 driving instructors (108 male and 24 female). In order to measure organizational safety strategies, Organizational Safety Strategies Scale (OSSS) was developed for driving schools. Results of the principal component analyses yielded one-factor solution for OSSS. In order to test the indirect effects of organizational safety strategies on driver behaviours through driving skills, multiple mediation analyses were conducted by entering age and annual mileage as the control variables. As organizational safety strategies were stronger, driving instructors had higher levels of perceptual-motor skills, which resulted in higher violations. On the other hand, as organizational safety strategies were stronger, driving instructors had higher levels of safety skills, which resulted in less violations and lapses. It can be inferred that; organizational stronger safety strategies might have negative influences on road safety through higher perceptual-motor skills; whereas there can be positive influences on road safety through higher safety skills. In addition, both skills are related to organizational safety strategies. Hence, driving schools should consider the asymmetric relationship between perceptual-motor skills and safety skills while improving their safety strategies to decrease violations and lapses. Organizations might also develop interventions to balance the stated skills to increase road safety.

The Effect of Perceptual-Motor Skills Training on Improvement of Handwriting in Preschool Children

Background and Purpose: Illegible handwriting is one of the common problems in preschool children. Handwriting is a complex perceptual-motor skill that depends on the evolution and integration of a number of cognitive-perceptual and motor skills that can develop through training. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of training the perceptual-motor skills on the improvement of handwriting in preschool children. Method: This research was a quasi-experimental study with control group pretest-posttest design. The population included all the 5 to 6-year old pre-school boys who had been referred to the counseling center of Education Administration in District 2 of Isfahan city in the academic year 2017-2018. They were screened by Handwriting Problems Checklist (Keshavarzi& Shojaee, 2015). A sample of 20 children with handwriting problems was selected by convenience sampling and then randomly placed in the experimental or control group (10 per group). The experimental group received the cognitive-movement skills training program for sixteen 45-min sessions but the control group received no training. Then, both groups completed the posttest. The measurement tool in this research was Handwriting Problems Checklist (Keshavarzi& Shojaee, 2015). For data analysis, uni-variate analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance were used. Results: Data analysis showed that cognitive-motor skills training program was effective on the improvement of handwriting problems (F = 14.73, P = 0.001) and on the subscales of handwriting errors (F = 12.40, P = 0.002) and body condition error at the time of writing (F = 6.12, P = 0.024) in the 4 to 6-year old pre-school boys. Conclusion: Based on the results, it can be concluded that cognitive-motor skills training was effective on the improvement of handwriting skills through strengthening the hand muscles and reinforcing the gross and fine motor skills. As a result, this method can be used as a supplementary treatment along with other therapies available for this problem.

Cognitive Performance and Neuro-Metabolites in HIV Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: A Cross-Sectional Study from India.

Cognitive impairment in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is associated with higher morbidity. The prevalence of the metabolite changes in the brain associated with cognitive impairment in anti-retroviral therapy naïve patients with HIV is unknown. To estimate the prevalence of the neurometabolites associated with cognitive impairment in antiretroviral therapy (ART) naïve patients with HIV. We conducted a cross-sectional study among ART naïve patients with HIV aged 18-50 years in a tertiary care center in India. Cognition was tested using the Post Graduate Institute battery of brain dysfunction across five domains; memory, attention-information processing, abstraction executive, complex perceptual, and simple motor skills. We assessed the total N-acetyl aspartyl (tNAA), creatine (tCr) and glutamate + glutamine (Glx) using 3T magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Cognitive impairment was defined as an impairment in ≥2 domains. Among 43 patients eligible for this study, the median age was 32 years (IQR 29, 40) and 30% were women. Median CD4 count and viral load were 317 cells/μL (IQR 157, 456) and 9.3 copies/ μL (IQR 1.4, 38), respectively. Impairment in at least one cognitive domain was present in 32 patients (74.4%). Impairment in simple motor skills and memory was present in 46.5% and 44% of patients, respectively. Cognitive impairment, defined by impairment in ≥2 domains, was found in 22 (51.2%) patients. There was a trend towards higher concentration of tNAA (7.3 vs. 7.0 mmol/kg), tGlx (9.1 vs. 8.2 mmol/kg), and tCr (5.5 vs. 5.2 mmol/kg) in the frontal lobe of patients with cognitive impairment vs. without cognitive impairment but it did not reach statistical significance (p>0.05 for all). There was no difference in the concentration of these metabolites in the two groups in the basal ganglia. There is a high prevalence of cognitive impairment in ART naïve patients with HIV. There is no difference in metabolites in patients with or without cognitive impairment. Further studies, with longitudinal follow-up are required to understand the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.

The Use of a Hidden Mixture Transition Distribution Model in Clustering Few but Long Continuous Sequences: An Illustration with Cognitive Skills Data

In accordance with the theme of this special issue, we present a model that indirectly discovers symmetries and asymmetries between past and present assessments within continuous sequences. More specifically, we present an alternative use of a latent variable version of the Mixture Transition Distribution (MTD) model, which allows for clustering of continuous longitudinal data, called the Hidden MTD (HMTD) model. We compare the HMTD and its clustering performance to the popular Growth Mixture Model (GMM), as well as to the recently introduced GMM based on individual case residuals (ICR-GMM). The GMM and the ICR-GMM contrast with HMTD, because they are based on an explicit change function describing the individual sequences on the dependent variable (here, we implement a non-linear exponential change function). This paper has three objectives. First, it introduces the HMTD. Second, we present the GMM and the ICR-GMM and compare them to the HMTD. Finally, we apply the three models and comment on how the conclusions differ depending on the clustering model, when using a specific dataset in psychology, which is characterized by a small number of sequences (n = 102), but that are relatively long (for the domains of psychology and social sciences: t = 20). We use data from a learning experiment, in which healthy adults (19–80 years old) were asked to perform a perceptual–motor skills over 20 trials.

Predictors of low perceptual-motor skills in children at 4-5 years of age

Abstract Objectives: the purpose of this study was to evaluate the predictors of low perceptual-motor skills in children at preschool age. Methods: this is a cross-sectional study nested in a birth cohort involving mother-child pairs. The children’s perceptual-motor skills were assessed individually in their homes when they were 4-5 years old using the Pre-Literacy Skills and Knowledge Test (THCP®), a vali-dated Brazilian instrument. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the association between cognitive perceptual-motor skills and potential maternal and child risk factors. Results: of the 199 children included in the study, 53.8% were boys, 90.8% attended school, and 91.1% were enrolled in a public school. Among the children, 114 (57.3%), 41 (20.6%) and 44 (22.1%) had low, moderate and high perceptual-motor skills, respectively. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed greater odds of children at preschool age having low perceptual motor skills for boys (OR=2.10; CI95%= 1.14-3.88), children who did not attend school (OR=4.61; CI95%= 1.21-17.49), and those with a household income <5 minimum wages (MW) (OR=4.28; CI95%= 1.49-12.26). Conclusions: our study showed that male gender, not attending school and a monthly household income <5 MW were predictors of low perceptual-motor skills in children at 4-5 years of age.

Autonomic Cardiac Activity Among Novice Archers During Baseline, Shooting, and Recovery.

Tok, S, Dal, N, Zekioğlu, A, Çatıkkaş, F, Balıkçı, İ, and Doğan, E. Autonomic cardiac activity among novice archers during baseline, shooting and recovery. J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2627-2635, 2020-In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether heart rate variability (HRV) of novice archers may vary during baseline, shooting, and recovery periods. In addition, we aimed to explore whether HRV may have different patterns between successful and less successful archers and man and woman archers. The sample consisted of 39 (12 woman) novice archers ranging in age from 21 to 27. Baseline HRV activity was measured in the first stage of the experiment. Then, participants shot 10 arrows, from 18 m to an 80 cm diameter target, whereas their HRV was measured. Lastly, HRV recovery response was measured immediately after shooting. HRV was represented as low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), and LF/HF ratio. When considering the entire sample, repeated measures of analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that only HF power differed among baseline, shooting, and recovery periods [F(2, 76) = 6.90, p = 0.002, ω = 0.15]. When the data partitioned, based on the median split of the shooting scores, repeated measures of ANOVA demonstrated that none of the HRV components differed in the less successful group from baseline to recovery. However, in the successful group, both LF [F(1.47, 30.98) = 4.75, p = 0.024, ω = 0.18] and HF [F(1.54, 32.37) = 6.61, p = 0.007, ω = 0.24] power significantly differed among baseline, shooting, and recovery. No differences were found between man and woman archers in terms of HRV indices. The results of the present study indicated that physical activities requiring the use of perceptual motor skills, in addition to physical qualities, may lead to different HRV responses. Moreover, coaches aiming to develop archers' shooting accuracy may take into account LF power measured during an arrow shooting session.

Traffic climate and driver behaviors: The moderating role of driving skills in Turkey and China

Introduction: While road traffic accidents and fatalities are a worldwide problem, the rates of road traffic accidents and fatalities show differences among countries. Similarly, driver behaviors, traffic climate, and their relationships also show differences among countries. The aim of the current study is to investigate the moderating effect of driving skills on the relationship between traffic climate and driver behaviors by country. (Turkey and China). Method: There were 294 Turkish drivers and 292 Chinese drivers, and they completed the Traffic Climate Scale, the Driving Skills Inventory, and the Driver Behavior Questionnaire. The moderated moderation analyses were conducted with Hayes PROCESS tool on SPSS. Results: The results showed that safety skills moderated the relationship between internal requirements and violations both in Turkey and China. Safety skills also moderated the relationship between internal requirements and errors only in China and the relationship between functionality and violations in Turkey. Perceptual-motor skills moderated the relationships between external affective demands and errors, and also the relationship between internal requirements and positive driver behaviors in Turkey. It can be inferred that driving skills has different influences on traffic climate-driver behaviors relationship in different cultures and there might be cultural differences in the evaluation of drivers’ own driving skills. Practical Applications: Among driving skills, safety skills have a more critical role to increase road safety by decreasing number of violations. Interventions to increase safety skills of drivers might be promising for road safety.

What are Fundamental Motor Skills and What is Fundamental About Them?

A review and synthesis of the literature on the learning and development of motor skills supports the postulation that whether a motor skill can be deemed fundamental is dependent on the collective presence of three conditions: (i) uniqueness to the movement pattern and/or outcome; (ii) near universality of the functional outcome in the healthy population; (iii) capacity to act as an antecedent influence supporting generalization to a large and broad set of perceptual-motor skills. Within this framework, it is proposed that the infant motor development sequence underpinning upright posture (e.g., sitting, bipedal standing), locomotion (e.g., walking, running), and object-interaction (e.g., grasping) represents the minimum set of fundamental motor skills from which all other skills evolve with over the lifespan. This position is in contrast to the views of many students of motor development and learning who describe numerous skills that typically emerge in the ∼2- to 18-year-old range as fundamental but do not meet the criteria outlined here to be fundamental. It is proposed that these be labeled as core developmental activities having a more restricted but still practically relevant influence on the acquisition of and generalization to other motor skills.

Knowledge vs. know-how? Dissecting the foundations of stone knapping skill

Stone tools provide some of the best remaining evidence of behavioral change over long periods, but their cognitive and evolutionary implications remain poorly understood. Here, we contribute to a growing body of experimental research on the cognitive and perceptual-motor foundations of stone toolmaking skills by using a flake prediction paradigm to assess the relative importance of technological understanding vs. accurate action execution in Late Acheulean–style handaxe production. This experiment took place as part of a larger, longitudinal study of knapping skill acquisition, allowing us to assemble a large sample of predictions across learning stages and in a comparative sample of experts. By combining group and individual-level statistical analyses with predictive modeling, we show that understanding and predicting specific flaking outcomes in this technology is both more difficult and less important than expected from previous work. Instead, our findings reveal the critical importance of perceptual motor skills needed to manage speed-accuracy trade-offs and reliably detach the large, invasive flakes that enable bifacial edging and thinning. With practice, novices increased striking accuracy, flaking success rates, and (to an extent) handaxe quality by targeting small flakes with acute platform angles. However, only experts were able to combine percussive force and accuracy to produce results comparable with actual Late Acheulean handaxes. The relatively intense demands for accurate action execution documented in our study indicate that biomechanical properties of the upper limb, cortical and cerebellar systems for sensorimotor control, and the cognitive, communicative, and affective traits supporting deliberate practice would all have been likely targets of selection acting on Late Acheulean toolmaking aptitude.

Motoričke i kognitivne sposobnosti prevremeno rođene dece

With the development of modern perinatal medicine and medical technology, the survival rate of premature infants has increased. However, premature birth is a risk factor for developmental delays. This paper evaluates the available literature to look at dominant developmental domains that reflect dysfunction of premature infants. Studies in which the subject of the study was to monitor the development of premature infants confirmed a lag in motor and cognitive development, and their interrelation. These results can be explained by: the early negative and unpleasant sensory experiences to which the immature nervous system was exposed ahead of time and the lack of adequate interaction of biological and environmental factors. Even after the prematurity has stabilized and with environmental stimuli that accelerate overall biological processes, many developments have been delayed. The first domain to identify developmental delays in premature infants is motor development. Studies show that babies born before 32 gestational weeks very often show persistent delays in motor development (gross and fine motor skills, perceptual-motor skills). Another domain that identifies developmental delays in premature infants is cognitive development. Empirical studies reveal that children under 26 weeks of gestational maturity show deficits or developmental delays in maintaining attention during the toddler period. Also, in these children, during the adolescence period, lower capacities of active and passive visual-spatial working memory were observed, which influences the acquisition of knowledge in mathematics, as well as the general achievement in school.

Understanding the development of bicycling skills in children: A systematic review

Learning to ride a bicycle can be considered a keystone in a child’s life, however, bicycle injuries in young bicyclists remain a significant problem. The current systematic review evaluated cross-sectional and intervention studies regarding the development of the intrinsic factors (motor skills, perceptual-motor skills, attitudes and knowledge) in young bicyclists of five to 18 years old. A systematic search of the literature resulted in 3426 abstracts, published before October 1, 2017, of which 63 full-texts were retrieved. A total of 46 qualitative articles were included for review, consisting of 23 cross-sectional studies and 23 intervention studies. A meta-analysis was performed for each intrinsic factor. It was found that bicycling skills develop with both age and experience. Even until the age of twelve, children have not yet automated their bicycling skills and experience difficulties with coordinating more complex motor and perceptual-motor skills such as estimating and anticipating dangerous situations. Given that attitudes such as rule compliance are affected by hormonally induced changes during puberty, more research is needed regarding the development of safe attitudes. Most training programs were effective to improve knowledge, motor skills and perceptual-motor skills in young bicyclists, especially those including an on-road component.

Influence of Extraversion on Social Loafing Behavior: A Pilot Study

The present study aimed to investigate extraversion as a moderator of social loafing on a motor task that requires fine motor skills as well as perceptual-motor skills. Participants with higher and lower levels of extraversion were asked to group dots according to their color during high and low identifiability conditions. The performance was determined by the number of dots accurately grouped. A 2 (group; high/low extraversion) × 2 (identifiability; high/low) mixed model of ANOVA revealed a significant interaction between extraversion and identifiability, which means that extraverts’ performance increased from the low to high identifiability condition. On the other hand, introverts’ performance remained relatively stable across high and low identifiability conditions. Overall, results suggested that in an identifiable state, extraverts tend to increase their performance.

Screening surgical residents’ laparoscopic skills using virtual reality tasks: Who needs more time in the sim lab?

BackgroundThis study investigated the possibility of using virtual reality perceptual-motor tasks as a screening tool for laparoscopic ability. We hypothesized that perceptual-motor skills assessed using virtual reality will correlate with the quality of simulated laparoscopic ventral hernia repair. Materials and MethodsSurgical residents (N = 37), performed 2 virtual reality perceptual-motor tasks: (1) force matching and (2) target tracking. Participants also performed a laparoscopic ventral hernia repair on a simulator and final product quality score, and endoscopic visualization errors were calculated. Correlational analysis was performed to assess the relationship between performance on virtual reality tasks and laparoscopic ventral hernia repair. ResultsResidents with poor performance on force matching in virtual reality—“peak deflection” (r = –0.34, P < .05) and “summation distance” (r = –0.36, P < .05)—had lower final product quality scores. Likewise, poor performance in virtual reality–based target tracking—“path length” (r = –0.49, P < .05) and “maximum distance” (r = –0.37, P < .05)—correlated with a lower final product quality score. ConclusionOur findings support the notion that virtual reality could be used as a screening tool for perceptual-motor skill. Trainees identified as having poor perceptual-motor skill can benefit from focused curricula, allowing them to hone personal areas of weakness and maximize technical skill.